India Geography Notes
1. Geographical Location & Borders
Location: India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
Mainland Latitude: 8°4' N to 37°6' N
Mainland Longitude: 68°7' E to 97°25' E
Size & Area:
7th largest country in the world by area.
Area: Approx. 3,287,263 sq km.
Accounts for approx. 2.4% of the total Earth's land area.
3rd largest country in South Asia.
Land Borders:
Total Length: Approx. 15,106.7 km.
Shares land borders with 7 countries:
Northwest: Pakistan, Afghanistan (106 km)
North: China, Nepal, Bhutan
East: Myanmar, Bangladesh
Longest Border: With Bangladesh (4,096.7 km), which is the world's 5th longest land border.
Specific Border Lines:
Radcliffe Line: India - Pakistan
McMahon Line: India - China (Tibet region)
Durand Line: Pakistan - Afghanistan
24th Parallel: Disputed line between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch area.
Maritime Borders/Neighbors:
Island Neighbors (South): Sri Lanka, Maldives.
India shares maritime boundaries with 7 countries: Pakistan, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Bangladesh.
India-Sri Lanka Separation: Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.
Neighboring Countries & Specific States:
Bangladesh (East): Borders West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram. (Manipur & Jharkhand do not border Bangladesh). West Bengal shares borders with 3 countries (Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan).
China (North): Borders Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh.
Pakistan (Northwest): Borders Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir (UT), Ladakh (UT). (Haryana does not border Pakistan).
Nepal (North): Borders Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim (5 states). (Jharkhand & Tripura do not border Nepal).
Myanmar (East): Borders Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram. (Assam does not border Myanmar).
Bhutan (North): Borders Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh.
Afghanistan (Northwest): Borders Ladakh (UT).
Sikkim: Shares borders with Nepal (W), Bhutan (SE), China (N/NE), and West Bengal (S). It's the only Indian state bordering Sikkim.
Arunachal Pradesh: Shares borders with Bhutan (W), China (N), Myanmar (E). It is India's easternmost state.
Haryana: Does not touch any international border.
Tajikistan: Does not share a land border with India.
Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N):
Passes through 8 Indian states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram.
Divides India into almost two equal parts.
Does not pass through Odisha or Manipur.
Indian Standard Time (IST):
Based on the Standard Meridian: 82°30' E longitude.
Passes through Mirzapur (near Prayagraj, UP).
Passes through 5 states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
IST is GMT + 5 hours 30 minutes.
IST is 30 minutes ahead of Pakistan Standard Time (PKT).
Extreme Points of India:
Northernmost: Indira Col (Ladakh)
Southernmost: Indira Point (Pygmalion Point/Parsons Point) on Great Nicobar Island.
Southernmost (Mainland): Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari), Tamil Nadu.
Easternmost: Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)
Westernmost: Guhar Moti / Ghuar Mota / Sir Creek (Gujarat)
Lowest Point: Kuttanad, Kerala (below sea level).
Coastal India:
Total Coastline Length (Mainland + Islands): Approx. 7517 km (7516.6 km).
States/UTs on Coastline: 9 states and 4 Union Territories.
Longest Coastline: Gujarat (approx. 1600 km). Chennai has the 3rd longest city coastline.
Western Coast: Arabian Sea borders states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala. Malabar Coast (Kerala), Konkan Coast (Mumbai-Goa). Western coastal plains are narrow and submerged.
Eastern Coast: Bay of Bengal borders states like Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu. Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu), Utkal Coast (Odisha). Eastern coast is broader, emergent, and has depositional features. Andhra Pradesh coastline is on the Bay of Bengal.
Geographical Regions: India is broadly divided into 6 geographical regions: Himalayas, Northern Plains, Peninsular Plateau, Indian Desert, Coastal Plains, Islands.
Peninsula: Southern part of India is a peninsula, bounded by Arabian Sea (W), Bay of Bengal (E), and Indian Ocean (S).
Disputes: Kalapani region is a territorial dispute between India (Uttarakhand) and Nepal.
2. Physical Division of India
A. Mountains and Peaks
Himalayas:
Newest mountain range in India (formed in Tertiary era). Form a wall in the north. Stretch ~2500 km West-East (Indus to Brahmaputra).
Ranges (N to S):
Himadri (Great/Inner Himalayas): Northernmost, highest peaks (Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga etc.). Mt. Kailash (Tibet) is eastern extension.
Himachal (Lesser/Middle Himalayas): South of Himadri. Includes ranges like Pir Panjal (longest in Lesser H.), Dhauladhar. Altitude 3500-4500m. Famous for hill stations.
Shiwalik (Outer Himalayas): Southernmost range. Altitude 900-1100m, width 10-50 km. Also known as Manak Parbat.
Regional Divisions (W to E):
Punjab Himalayas: Between Indus and Sutlej.
Kumaun Himalayas: Between Sutlej and Kali.
Nepal Himalayas: Between Kali and Teesta.
Assam Himalayas: Between Teesta and Dihang (Brahmaputra).
Valleys: Longitudinal valleys between Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are called 'Duns' (e.g., Dehradun).
Highest Peaks:
World: Mt. Everest (8848.86 m / 29,031.69 ft, Nepal/China).
India (Overall): K2 / Godwin Austen (8611 m, POK - Karakoram Range).
India (Undisputed/Himalayan): Kanchenjunga (8586 m, Sikkim - 3rd highest in world).
Other notable peaks in India: Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand), Kamet (Uttarakhand - Zaskar Range, 7756m), Saser Kangri (Ladakh).
Eastern Boundary: Marked by the Brahmaputra River.
Purvanchal (North-East Hills): Includes Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills, Garo-Khasi-Jaintia Hills.
Aravalli Range:
Oldest fold mountain range in India (Pre-Cambrian).
Runs NE-SW through Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat.
Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1722 m) on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
Vindhya Range:
Complex chain of hills, ridges, plateaus in West-Central India.
Acts as a boundary between North and South India.
Bounded by Aravallis (NW) and Satpura (S).
Satpura Range:
Range in Central India.
Highest Peak: Dhupgarh (1350 m), near Pachmarhi, Mahadev Hills, Madhya Pradesh.
Western Ghats (Sahyadri):
Run parallel to the west coast, from Gujarat to Kanyakumari (~1600 km).
Biodiversity hotspot, UNESCO World Heritage site.
Local Names: Sahyadri (Maharashtra), Sahya Parvatham (Kerala).
Meeting Point: Meet Eastern Ghats at the Nilgiri Hills.
Highest Peak: Anamudi (2695 m), Kerala (Anamalai Hills) - also highest peak in South India.
Sub-ranges/Hills: Nilgiri Hills (TN/Karnataka/Kerala), Anamalai Hills (TN/Kerala), Cardamom Hills (Kerala/TN).
Eastern Ghats:
Discontinuous range along the east coast (Odisha to Tamil Nadu). Lower elevation than Western Ghats.
Highest Peak: Jindhagada Peak (1690 m), Andhra Pradesh. Mahendragiri (1501 m, Odisha) was earlier considered highest.
Hills: Shevaroy Hills (TN), Nallamala Hills (AP), Mahendragiri Hills (Odisha).
Nilgiri Hills:
Junction of Western and Eastern Ghats (mainly Tamil Nadu).
Known as the 'Blue Mountains'.
Highest Peak: Doddabetta (2637 m).
Other Hills/Ranges:
Hindu Kush: NW of India (Afg/Pak/Tajikistan). Highest peak: Tirich Mir.
Karakoram Range: Trans-Himalayan range, north of Great Himalayas. Includes K2. Saltoro Kangri peak is here.
Ladakh & Zaskar Ranges: Trans-Himalayan ranges. Kamet peak is in Zaskar.
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia Hills: Meghalaya (part of Peninsular Plateau). Mawsynram is in Khasi Hills. Shillong is in Khasi Hills.
Patkai Hills: Part of Purvanchal.
Kaimur Hills: Bihar (part of Vindhyan extension).
Mahadeo Hills: Part of Satpura range (MP).
Girnar Hills: Gujarat (famous for Kesar Mangoes).
Tagore Hill (Morabadi Hill): Ranchi, Jharkhand.
Hill Stations: Mount Abu (Aravalli, Rajasthan), Ranikhet, Nainital, Mussoorie (Uttarakhand).
B. Plains of North India
Located south of the Himalayas.
Formed by alluvial deposits of Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems.
Very fertile and densely populated. Area ~7 lakh sq km.
Alluvium Types:
Bhangar: Older alluvium, forms terraces higher than floodplains.
Khadar: Newer alluvium, forms floodplains.
C. Peninsular Plateau
Oldest landmass, composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Triangular shape.
Divisions:
Central Highlands: North of Narmada river. Includes Malwa Plateau, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Chotanagpur Plateau.
Deccan Plateau: South of Narmada river. Bounded by Western and Eastern Ghats. Mostly covered by Black soil (Regur). Hyderabad is on this plateau.
Specific Plateaus:
Malwa Plateau: Spreads across Rajasthan, MP, Gujarat. Betwa river flows through it.
Chotanagpur Plateau: Jharkhand, Odisha, WB, Chhattisgarh. Rich in minerals. Damodar river flows through it.
Kathiawar Peninsula: Gujarat/Rajasthan extension.
D. Passes (Ghats)
Himalayan Passes: Zoji La (J&K - Srinagar-Leh), Banihal (J&K - Pir Panjal), Shipki La (HP-Tibet), Rohtang (HP - Kullu-Lahaul/Spiti), Bara-lacha La (HP - Leh-Manali), Nathu La (Sikkim-Tibet), Jelep La (Sikkim-Tibet), Bomdi La (Arunachal), Diphu (Arunachal - India/China/Myanmar tri-junction), Lipu Lekh (Uttarakhand-Tibet), Mana (Uttarakhand-Tibet), Niti (Uttarakhand-Tibet), Khardung La (Ladakh - Leh-Nubra), Karakoram Pass (Ladakh-China).
Western Ghats Passes: Thal Ghat (Mumbai-Nashik), Bhor Ghat (Mumbai-Pune), Palakkad Gap (Palghat Gap - Kerala-TN, between Nilgiris & Anaimalai).
E. Coastal Areas and Islands
Coastal Plains:
Western Coastal Plain: Between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea. Submerged coast. Narrower. Sections: Konkan (N), Kannad (Central), Malabar (S - Kerala).
Eastern Coastal Plain: Between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal. Emergent coast. Broader. Sections: Utkal (Odisha), Coromandel (TN). Low sedimentary coast.
Islands:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Bay of Bengal. Emergent part of Arakan Yoma range. Includes Great Nicobar (Indira Point), South Andaman (Port Blair, Cellular Jail). Home to tribes like Onges, Jarawas, Sentinelese, Shompen. India's only active volcano (Barren Island) is here. Netrani Island (Karnataka coast).
Lakshadweep Islands: Arabian Sea. Group of 36 coral islands (10 inhabited). Smallest UT by area (32 sq km). Capital: Kavaratti. Aminidivi and Minicoy are parts. Malayalam is the main language.
Riverine Islands: Majuli (Brahmaputra, Assam) - largest inhabited river island, first island district. Umananda (Brahmaputra, Assam) - smallest river island.
F. Desert
Thar Desert (Great Indian Desert): Large arid region in Western India (mainly Rajasthan, also parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab) and Pakistan. Largest desert in India. Sambhar Lake is here. Rann of Kutch (salt marsh, Gujarat) is part of this region. Luni river flows through it.
Cold Desert: Ladakh, Spiti Valley (HP).
Landforms: Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes), Sand dunes.
G. Lakes, Waterfalls
Largest Freshwater Lake: Wular Lake (J&K).
Largest Brackish Water Lake (Lagoon): Chilika Lake (Odisha).
Largest Inland Saltwater Lake: Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan).
Largest Freshwater Lake (NE India): Loktak Lake (Manipur) - famous for Phumdis.
Crater Lake: Lonar Lake (Maharashtra) - formed by meteorite impact.
Other Lakes: Dal Lake (J&K), Pulicat Lake (AP/TN - brackish), Kolleru Lake (AP - freshwater), Vembanad, Ashtamudi, Sasthamcotta (Kerala - backwaters/lakes), Nainital, Bhimtal (Uttarakhand), Tsomgo Lake (Sikkim - glacial), Umiam Lake (Meghalaya), Renuka Lake (HP), Khecheopalri Lake (Sikkim).
Waterfalls: Jog Falls / Gersoppa Falls (Sharavati River, Karnataka), Dhuandhar Falls (Narmada River, MP), Kunchikal Falls (Varahi River, Karnataka - highest in India), Chitrakoot Falls (Indravati River, Chhattisgarh).
H. Glaciers
Largest Glacier in India: Siachen Glacier (Karakoram Range, Ladakh). Also highest battlefield.
Other Major Glaciers: Baltoro, Biafo, Hispar, Batura (Karakoram, mostly in POK/Gilgit-Baltistan). Gangotri (Uttarakhand - source of Bhagirathi/Ganga).
3. Drainage System (Rivers)
River Systems:
Himalayan Rivers: Perennial (snow-fed & rain-fed). Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra systems.
Peninsular Rivers: Mostly non-perennial (rain-fed). Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi etc.
Major Rivers & Tributaries:
Indus System: Originates near Mansarovar Lake (Tibet). Flows West through Ladakh, Pakistan to Arabian Sea. Westernmost Himalayan river. Tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej (Panjnad - Left Bank); Shyok, Nubra, Zanskar, Gilgit, Kabul (Right Bank). Gomti is NOT an Indus tributary. Beas is a tributary.
Ganga System: Originates from Gangotri Glacier (as Bhagirathi). Bhagirathi + Alaknanda = Ganga (at Devprayag). Enters plains at Haridwar. Longest river originating in India (~2525 km). Forms largest delta (Ganga-Brahmaputra/Sundarbans). Drains into Bay of Bengal. Most populated river basin. Tributaries: Yamuna (longest tributary), Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara (Karnali), Gandak, Kosi (Sorrow of Bihar), Mahananda (last Himalayan tributary), Son (South bank). Indravati & Manas are NOT Ganga tributaries. Mechi is tributary of Mahananda. Damodar ('Sorrow of Bengal') is tributary of Hooghly (distributary). Kosi known for changing course.
Brahmaputra System: Originates from Chemayungdung glacier near Mansarovar Lake (Tibet, as Tsangpo/Yarlung Zangpo). Enters India in Arunachal Pradesh (as Siang/Dihang). Known as Brahmaputra in Assam, Jamuna in Bangladesh. Merges with Ganga (Padma) in Bangladesh, forms Meghna before draining into Bay of Bengal. Marks eastern boundary of Himalayas. Tributaries: Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Teesta, Sankosh, Dhansiri, Burhi Dihang. Tamsa (Tons) & Gomti are NOT Brahmaputra tributaries. Lohit is a tributary. Majuli & Umananda islands are in this river.
Yamuna River: Largest tributary of Ganga. Originates from Yamunotri glacier. Joins Ganga at Prayagraj. Tributaries: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, Hindon, Tons. Chenab & Gandak are NOT Yamuna tributaries. Delhi, Agra, Mathura are on its banks.
Godavari System: Longest Peninsular river ('Dakshin Ganga' or 'Vridha Ganga'). 2nd longest river in India (1465 km). Originates from Trimbakeshwar (Nashik, Maharashtra). Flows East to Bay of Bengal. Tributaries: Pranhita (largest tributary - carries combined waters of Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga), Indravati, Manjira, Sabari. Nashik city is on its banks. Forms delta with Krishna. Manjira is a tributary, but also listed incorrectly as NOT a Krishna tributary elsewhere.
Krishna System: 2nd longest Peninsular river (1401 km). Originates near Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra). Flows East to Bay of Bengal. Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, Musi. Hyderabad is on Musi river banks. Vijayawada is on Krishna banks. Manjira is NOT a Krishna tributary. Tungabhadra is a tributary.
Narmada System: Originates from Amarkantak Plateau (MP). Flows West through a rift valley (between Vindhya & Satpura) to Arabian Sea (Gulf of Cambay), forms an estuary. Jabalpur (Dhuandhar falls) is on its banks. Sardar Sarovar dam is built on it.
Tapi (Tapti) System: Originates from Satpura Range (Betul, MP). Flows West (parallel to Narmada) to Arabian Sea (Gulf of Cambay), forms an estuary. Surat city is on its banks. Tributaries: Purna, Girna.
Mahanadi System: Originates near Sihawa (Chhattisgarh). Major river of Odisha ('Sorrow of Odisha' - less relevant now due to Hirakud dam). Flows East to Bay of Bengal. Hirakud Dam (longest earthen dam) is built on it. Cuttack city is on its banks. Mechi is a tributary of Mahananda (which is a Ganga tributary), not Mahanadi.
Kaveri (Cauvery) System: Originates from Brahmagiri Hills (Kodagu, Karnataka). Flows SE through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu to Bay of Bengal. Sacred river of South India. Forms delta. Tributaries: Hemavati, Bhavani, Lokapavani. Kaveri water dispute between Karnataka & Tamil Nadu.
Other Rivers: Luni (originates Aravalli, disappears in Rann of Kutch - inland drainage), Sabarmati (originates Aravalli, flows to Arabian Sea, Ahmedabad on its banks), Periyar (longest river of Kerala, flows West), Pennar (originates Nandi Hills, flows East), Damodar, Subarnarekha (examples of superimposed drainage), Ghaggar (seasonal, Haryana/Rajasthan), Arvari (revived river, Rajasthan), Kshipra (MP, Ujjain on banks), Tawa (tributary of Narmada), Daman Ganga (flows through Dadra & Nagar Haveli), Rushikulya (Odisha), Teesta (originates Sikkim, flows through WB, joins Brahmaputra in B'desh).
Flow Direction: Most peninsular rivers flow West to East (e.g., Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi). Narmada and Tapi flow East to West. Luni has inland drainage.
River Features: Estuaries (Narmada, Tapi), Deltas (Ganga-Brahmaputra - largest, Krishna-Godavari, Kaveri, Mahanadi), Meanders (bends), Distributaries (channels near mouth), Levees (natural embankments), Waterfalls.
Drainage Patterns: Radial (rivers flow outwards from a central point, e.g., Amarkantak), Trellis (common in folded regions), Dendritic (tree-like).
River Bank Cities: Delhi (Yamuna), Agra (Yamuna), Mathura (Yamuna), Prayagraj (Ganga-Yamuna confluence), Varanasi (Ganga), Kanpur (Ganga), Patna (Ganga), Kolkata (Hooghly), Lucknow (Gomti), Ahmedabad (Sabarmati), Surat (Tapi), Nashik (Godavari), Hyderabad (Musi), Vijayawada (Krishna), Jabalpur (Narmada), Ujjain (Kshipra), Cuttack (Mahanadi), Madurai (Vaigai), Srinagar (Jhelum), Jammu (Tawi).
4. River Valley Projects (Continued)
Project Locations & Rivers: See tables under 3. Drainage System and specific project descriptions above. Key associations: Hirakud-Mahanadi, Sardar Sarovar-Narmada, Tehri-Bhagirathi, Bhakra Nangal-Sutlej, Nagarjuna Sagar-Krishna, Idukki-Periyar, Almatti-Krishna, Ukai-Tapi, Rihand-Rihand, Gandhi Sagar-Chambal.
First Major Multipurpose Project (Post-Independence): Hirakud Dam; Damodar Valley Project (DVP) was the very first overall.
Canals & Irrigation: Indira Gandhi Canal (longest, Rajasthan), Gosikhurd Project (Maharashtra), Pattiseema Lift Irrigation (AP), Kaleswaram Lift Irrigation (Telangana), Kandaleru Dam (AP), Pagladia Dam (Assam).
Issues: Displacement, cost vs benefit, environmental impact (deforestation, biodiversity loss), siltation. Tawa Dam oustees' struggle mentioned. Water sharing disputes (e.g., Odisha-Chhattisgarh over Mahanadi/Hirakud).
5. Climate of India
General Climate Type: Tropical Monsoon Climate. Characterized by high temperatures and monsoon-laden summers.
Monsoons:
Southwest Monsoon (Summer Monsoon): June to Mid-September. Main rainy season for most of India. First arrives in Kerala (around June 1st). Advances to cover Punjab, Haryana, Western UP by early July. Responsible for most rainfall.
Northeast Monsoon (Winter Monsoon / Retreating Monsoon): October to December/January. Winds blow from land to sea. Brings winter rainfall primarily to Tamil Nadu coast (Coromandel Coast), also parts of AP, Kerala, Karnataka. Tamil Nadu receives maximum rainfall from this monsoon.
Temperature Zones: Sub-tropical vegetation zone: Annual average temp 17°C to 24°C.
Local Winds & Phenomena:
Loo: Strong, gusty, hot, dry summer winds (May-June) blowing over North and North-Western India (Rajasthan and adjacent areas). Associated with summer season.
Western Disturbances: Winter phenomena. Weather systems originating from Mediterranean region, bring winter rain to North-Western India (Punjab, Haryana - useful for wheat).
Mango Showers: Pre-monsoon showers (March-May) common in Kerala and Karnataka. Help in early ripening of mangoes.
Nor'westers (Kalbaisakhi / Bordoisila): Pre-monsoon thunderstorms/rainfall in West Bengal and Assam. Bordoisila is the Assamese name.
Rainfall Distribution:
Highest Rainfall: Mawsynram, Meghalaya (receives highest average annual rainfall in the world). Located in Khasi Hills.
Monsoon Arrival: First in Kerala (SW Monsoon). Delhi receives rain from Bay of Bengal branch by end of June (~29th June).
Climate Controls/Factors: Latitude, Altitude, Pressure and Winds, Distance from the Sea, Ocean Currents, Relief Features, Distribution of Land and Water. Surface area and longitude are NOT direct determinants. Snowfall in Europe does NOT directly affect India's climate.
Climate Variations: Delhi has extreme climate (hot summer, cold winter). Mumbai (coastal) has more moderate temperatures but high humidity. Rain shadow areas (leeward side of mountains like Eastern Ghats) receive less rainfall.
6. Soils of India
Major Soil Types:
Alluvial Soil: Most widespread (~40%), very fertile. Northern plains, river valleys, coastal plains (esp. East coast). Formed by river silt. Rich in potash, poor in phosphorus. Bangar (old), Khadar (new).
Black Soil (Regur): Deccan Plateau (MH, MP, GJ, AP, TN). Derived from lava. Clayey, high moisture retention, sticky when wet. Rich in lime, potash, magnesium, calcium carbonate; poor in nitrogen, phosphorus. Ideal for Cotton ('Black Cotton Soil'). Self-ploughing.
Red and Yellow Soil: On crystalline rocks in low rainfall areas (E/S Deccan, Odisha, Chhattisgarh etc.). Red due to ferric oxide; yellow when hydrated. Low fertility, poor water holding capacity.
Laterite Soil: Hot, wet tropical areas with high temp & heavy rainfall (leaching). Rich in iron & aluminum. Rusty red. Found in parts of MH, KA, KL, TN, AP, OD, WB, JH, Assam. Low fertility.
Arid (Desert) Soil: Rajasthan, NW India. Sandy, saline, poor humus.
Forest/Mountain Soil: Himalayas. Varies with altitude.
Karewa: Silt deposits in Kashmir valley. Good for saffron.
Soil Properties & Issues:
Color: Red soil due to ferric oxide. Black soil color related to parent material/humus.
Texture & Porosity: Clayey soil (Black soil) is least porous, highest water retention. Sandy soil is most porous.
Fertility: Alluvial is most fertile. Laterite, Red soils are generally less fertile. Black soil fertility varies.
Crops: Cotton (Black), Saffron (Karewa), Millets/Groundnut (Red).
Erosion: Contour ploughing helps reduce it on slopes.
Salinity: Found in Arid soils.
Terms: Pedology (Soil study), Regur (Black Soil).
7. Forest/ Wildlife/ Vegetations in India
Forest Types & Characteristics: See section 7 under Physical Division for details on Evergreen, Deciduous, Thorn, Montane, Mangrove forests, including key species and locations.
Forest Cover: MP (largest area), Mizoram (highest percentage).
Wildlife: Asiatic Lions (Gir), Tigers (Sundarbans, etc.), Lion-Tailed Macaque (Western Ghats), Nilgiri Tahr (Western Ghats), Hoolock Gibbon (NE India), River Dolphin (Ganga/Ghaghara), Flamingos (Chilika), Himalayan Yew (medicinal plant, endangered).
Conservation: Sundarbans (Largest Mangrove Forest, World Heritage Site), Gir Forest National Park (Lion conservation), Arabari Project (Sal forest regeneration), Shelter belts (erosion control).
Forest Products: Tendu leaves (bidis), Willow wood (cricket bats), Gum (waste product), Sandalwood (Karnataka). Hollong (State tree of Assam).
Tribes & Forest Resources: Gujars/Bakrwals depend on Montane forests.
8. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Crop Seasons: Kharif (Monsoon), Rabi (Winter), Zaid (Summer).
Major Crops & Production: See section 8 under Geographical Location for details on Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Saffron, etc., and leading states.
Agricultural Practices: Shifting Cultivation (Jhum, Bewar etc.), Contour Ploughing, Mulching, Viticulture, Agro-forestry.
Revolutions: Green (Foodgrains, Swaminathan), White (Milk, Kurien), Blue (Fish), Yellow (Oilseeds), Grey (Fertilizers), etc.
Animal Husbandry: Milk (India leading producer, UP leading state). Wool extraction (Shearing).
Institutions & Policies: National Policy for Farmers (2007), Rythu Bandhu (Telangana). AMUL (Anand Milk Union Ltd). Rubber Board (Kottayam).
Farming Issues: Pests (K, Ca, Mg help resistance), Weeds (Barnard grass in rice), Soil degradation (Lime/Manure used for improvement), Drought (Millet is drought-tolerant). Monoculture disadvantages.
9. Mineral Resources in India
Iron Ore: Major belts: Odisha-Jharkhand, Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur (Chhattisgarh), Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru (Karnataka). Richest Hematite in Odisha. Mines: Gua (Jharkhand), Mayurbhanj (Odisha), Kudremukh (Karnataka). Chromite (used with Iron for stainless steel) mainly in Odisha. Max concentration of Iron & Steel industry in Chotanagpur plateau.
Coal: Jharkhand (highest reserves), Odisha, Chhattisgarh (highest production FY20-21), West Bengal, MP. Gondwana fields (esp. Damodar Valley - Jharia, Bokaro, Raniganj) hold most reserves. Jharia (Jharkhand) is largest coalfield. Singareni mines (Telangana).
Petroleum: Oldest field/refinery: Digboi, Assam (1889/1901). Largest field: Bombay High (offshore). Largest onshore producer: Rajasthan. Other sites: Ankleshwar, Cambay (Gujarat), Moran-Hugrijan, Naharkatiya (Assam).
Manganese: Odisha (largest producer), MP (leading producer in 2018-19, 33%), Maharashtra, Karnataka. Balaghat mines (MP) are abundant. Used in steel manufacturing.
Bauxite (Aluminum Ore): Odisha (largest reserves & producer ~51%), Gujarat, Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla, Latehar), Chhattisgarh, MP, TN. Panchpatmali (Koraput, Odisha) has large deposits. Guinea has world's largest reserves.
Copper: Khetri mines (Rajasthan) are famous. Malanjkhand mine (Balaghat, MP) is also famous.
Gold: Karnataka (largest producer, Kolar, Hutti mines), Bihar (highest primary reserves as of 2021), Rajasthan. India has 3 operational gold fields (Kolar, Hutti, Hirabuddini-Jharkhand).
Mica: India is leading producer. Andhra Pradesh (largest reserves ~41%, Nellore belt), Rajasthan, Odisha, Jharkhand. Pegmatite is the main ore. Used in electronics.
Uranium: Andhra Pradesh (largest reserves, Tummalapalle mine), Jharkhand (Jaduguda - first mine), Rajasthan.
Diamonds: Panna (Majhgawan mine, MP) - only industrial-scale mine in India. Golkonda (AP), Kolur mine (AP) also known historically.
Thorium: Found in Monazite sands. Kerala has large deposits (Palakkad, Kollam). India has world's largest reserves.
Other Minerals: Limestone, Dolomite (Banda, Sonbhadra, Mirzapur - UP), Marble (Mirzapur/Sonbhadra - UP), Gypsum, Silver (Rajasthan), Natural Gas (often with petroleum). Jet Black Granite (Kollegul, Karnataka).
Mineral Distribution: Chotanagpur plateau is rich in various minerals (Iron, Coal, Manganese, Bauxite, Mica). Hasdeo Valley (Chhattisgarh) famous for coal. Singhbhum (Jharkhand) mines for Iron, Copper, Uranium etc.
10. Major Industries in India
Iron and Steel: Major centers: Jamshedpur (TISCO - first large scale plant, 1907), Rourkela (Odisha - first public sector integrated plant, German collaboration), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh - Russian collaboration), Durgapur (WB - UK collaboration), Bokaro (Jharkhand - Russian collaboration, 4th integrated public sector plant), Visakhapatnam (RINL - first shore-based plant), Salem (TN - special steels). Most are operated by SAIL (Steel Authority of India). HSL initially managed Rourkela, later Bhilai & Durgapur too. Industry concentrated near raw materials (Chotanagpur plateau).
Jute Industry: Concentrated along Hooghly river banks (WB). First mill at Rishra (1855). India is largest producer.
Cotton Textiles: Largest organised industry. Mumbai (Cotton textile capital), Ahmedabad (Manchester of India), Coimbatore (Manchester of South India), Kanpur (Manchester of North India). Tamil Nadu has highest number of mills (mainly yarn).
Diamond Industry: Surat, Navsari (Gujarat) famous for cutting and polishing. Panna (MP) for mining.
Petroleum Refining: Digboi (Assam - oldest), Mathura (UP - IOCL, 6th refinery), Panipat (Haryana - IOCL), Mumbai (various), Koyali (Gujarat). India has multiple refineries.
Automobiles: Chennai known as 'Detroit of Asia'. Gurgaon-Manesar belt. Pune region.
Software/IT: Bengaluru ('Silicon Valley of India'), Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, NCR.
Shipbuilding: Hindustan Shipyard Limited (Visakhapatnam), Cochin Shipyard, Mazagon Dock (Mumbai).
Rail Coach Factories: Kapurthala (Punjab), Perambur (Chennai), Rae Bareli (UP). Kolkata does not have one listed. Diesel Locomotive Works (Varanasi).
Other Industries: Brassware (Moradabad - 'Brass City'), Glass Bangles (Firozabad), Leather (Kanpur - ~400 factories), Wood Carving (Saharanpur), Handicrafts.
Industrial Corporations/PSUs: SAIL, ONGC (Maharatna, HQ: Dehradun/Delhi), IOCL (Largest oil company), Coal India Ltd (Maharatna), BHEL (Maharatna), NTPC (Maharatna). DVC.
Industrial Concepts: Cottage Industry (home-based, simple tech, local raw material, family labour).
11. Transport in India
Road Transport:
National Highways (NH): Constructed & maintained by NHAI (National Highways Authority of India, est. 1988). Carry ~40% of road traffic despite being <3% of network length.
Longest NH: NH-44 (Srinagar to Kanyakumari, ~3745 km). Passes through 10 states, 2 UTs.
Shortest NH: NH-47A (Kerala, 5.92 km - Note: NH numbering has changed, this may refer to older NH966B). NH-8 is NOT shortest.
NH-1 (Old): Delhi-Attari. Part of GT Road.
NH-8 (Old): Delhi-Mumbai. NH-8 (New) is different.
NH-9 (Old): Pune-Hyderabad-Machilipatnam.
NH-15: Covers most of Rajasthan, connects to Kandla port.
NH-48 (New): Delhi-Chennai (part of Golden Quadrilateral).
Expressways: Agra-Lucknow Expressway (longest 6-lane controlled-access). Mumbai-Pune Expressway.
Golden Quadrilateral: Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata (launched by A.B. Vajpayee, 2001). Total length ~5846 km.
North-South & East-West Corridors: NS (Srinagar-Kanyakumari), EW (Silchar-Porbandar). Intersect at Jhansi.
Bharatmala Pariyojana: Highway development project.
Setu Bharatam: Project to make NHs free of railway level crossings (launched 2016).
Border Roads Organisation (BRO): Est. 1960. Under Ministry of Defence (since 2015). Builds & maintains roads in border/strategic areas (e.g., Leh-Manali Highway). Responsible for snow clearance.
Road Density: Highest in Kerala, lowest in J&K.
Institute of Road Traffic Education (IRTE): Located in Faridabad.
Rail Transport:
4th largest network in the world. Largest employer in India.
Railway Zones: 18 Zones. HQ examples: West Central (Jabalpur), East Central (Hajipur), East Coast (Bhubaneswar), South East Central (Bilaspur), Northern (New Delhi), Western (Churchgate, Mumbai). Kolkata Metro is 17th zone. South Coast Railway (Visakhapatnam) is 18th.
First Train: 16 April 1853 (Mumbai-Thane).
First Electric Train: 3 Feb 1925 (Bombay VT - Kurla Harbour).
Metro Rail: First in Kolkata (1984). Delhi Metro first to use waste-to-energy power.
Longest Running Train (Distance/Time): Vivek Express (Dibrugarh-Kanyakumari).
Semi-High Speed Train: Vande Bharat Express (Train 18 - first engineless train). First run: Delhi-Varanasi. Second run: Delhi-Katra.
Luxury Trains: Deccan Odyssey (Maharashtra Tourism). Palace on Wheels. Desert Circuit.
Slowest Train: Mettupalayam-Ooty Nilgiri Passenger.
Railway Tunnels: Pir Panjal / Banihal Tunnel (J&K, 11.21 km) - longest rail tunnel.
Bridges: Bogibeel Bridge (Assam - longest rail-cum-road bridge, Brahmaputra). Chenab Bridge (J&K - world's highest railway arch bridge). Howrah Bridge (Kolkata, cantilever).
Railway University: National Rail and Transportation Institute (NRTI), Vadodara (First in India).
Institutions: IRCTC (Catering, Ticketing, Tourism), RCF (Kapurthala), DLW (Varanasi).
Mascot: Bholu the Elephant.
Initiatives: Rail Sahyog (CSR portal for amenities), Mission Speed (increase train speeds).
Gauge: Broad Gauge (1676 mm).
Air Transport:
Airports Authority of India (AAI): Manages civil aviation infrastructure (est. 1995).
Major Airports: Indira Gandhi International (Delhi), Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International (Mumbai - busiest single runway), Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International (Kolkata), Kempegowda International (Bengaluru), Chennai International, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International (Nagpur), Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar (Indore), Sri Guru Ram Das Jee International (Amritsar), Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International (Guwahati), Lal Bahadur Shastri (Varanasi), Veer Savarkar (Port Blair). Jolly Grant (Dehradun).
Solar Powered Airport: Cochin International (world's first).
Airlines: Air India (National carrier, Mascot: Maharaja), Vistara (Tata Sons + Singapore Airlines JV). Air Asia (first foreign airline to Srinagar). Pawan Hans Ltd (helicopter service, PSU).
Aircraft: AN-32 certified for bio-jet fuel blend.
Water Transport:
Major Ports: 12 major ports. Kandla (Gujarat - renamed Deendayal Port, tidal port, first EPZ), Mumbai (largest natural harbour, busiest), Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT/Nhava Sheva - busiest container port), Mormugao (Goa), New Mangalore (Karnataka), Cochin (Kerala - 'Queen of Arabian Sea'), Tuticorin (TN - southernmost), Chennai (TN - oldest artificial port on East coast), Ennore (TN - first corporatized port), Visakhapatnam (AP - deepest landlocked port), Paradip (Odisha), Kolkata-Haldia (WB - riverine port on Hooghly).
National Waterways (NW): NW-1 (Allahabad-Haldia, Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly), NW-2 (Sadiya-Dhubri, Brahmaputra), NW-3 (Kollam-Kottapuram, West Coast Canal, Kerala), NW-4 (Kakinada-Puducherry canals + Krishna & Godavari rivers), NW-5 (Brahmani River + Mahanadi delta). 111 NWs declared under Act 2016.
Shipbreaking: Alang-Sosiya (Gujarat) - world's largest.
Shipbuilding: Hindustan Shipyard (Visakhapatnam).
Trade: Most foreign trade by Sea and Air routes.
Transport Institutes: National Rail and Transportation Institute (Vadodara), Institute of Road Traffic Education (Faridabad). National Technology Centre for Ports, Waterways and Beaches (IIT Chennai).
12. Tribes of India
Major Tribes & Locations:
Andaman & Nicobar: Onges, Jarawas, Sentinelese, Shompen (Nicobar), Great Andamanese. (Negrito & Mongoloid groups).
North-East India:
Assam: Mishing (Majuli island), Bodo, Karbi, Dimasa. Chakma refugees also reside here.
Nagaland: Naga tribes (Ao, Angami, Lotha, Chang, Rengma, Sema). Ao is a prominent language.
Meghalaya: Garo, Khasi, Jaintia.
Mizoram: Mizo (Lushai). Chakma refugees.
Manipur: Meitei, Kuki, Naga. Pamlou (shifting cultivation).
Arunachal Pradesh: Apatani, Monpa, Nyishi, Adi. Chakma refugees.
Tripura: Tripuri, Reang, Chakma.
Sikkim: Bhutia, Lepcha, Limbu. Bhutia native to Sikkim, NOT Tamil Nadu.
Himalayan Region:
Uttarakhand: Bhotiya, Buksa, Jaunsari, Khas, Raji, Tharu.
Himachal Pradesh: Gaddi, Gujjar, Kinnaura, Lahaula. Kangri language spoken.
Ladakh/J&K: Gujjar, Bakarwal, Balti, Beda.
Central India:
Madhya Pradesh: Gond (largest tribal group overall, language Gondi), Bhil (largest single tribe), Baiga, Korku, Sahariya, Kol, Bharia. Bewar/Dahiya (shifting cultivation).
Chhattisgarh: Gond, Muria, Baiga, Oraon. Dipa (shifting cultivation in Bastar).
Jharkhand: Santhal (major group, Chotanagpur plateau), Munda, Oraon, Ho, Kharia. Kuruva (shifting cultivation).
Odisha: Gond, Santhal, Saora, Bonda, Koya. Koman (shifting cultivation).
Western India:
Rajasthan: Bhil, Meenas (Minas), Sahariya, Damaria, Garasia. Valra (shifting cultivation).
Gujarat: Bhil, Dubla, Dhodia.
Maharashtra: Gond, Bhil, Warli, Kolam, Katkari. Kolhati language spoken.
South India:
Tamil Nadu: Toda (Nilgiri Hills, pastoralists), Kota, Irula, Kurumba, Malasar. Bhutia is NOT native.
Kerala: Kurumbar, Kadar, Paniyan.
Karnataka: Soliga, Yerava.
Andhra Pradesh/Telangana: Gond, Koya, Chenchu, Lambadi. Podu (shifting cultivation).
Tribal Languages: Gondi, Ao, Santhali, Bhili, Kangri, Kolhati etc. Sanskrit (Indo-European family).
Shifting Cultivation: Known by various local names (see above).
Refugees: Chakma refugees from Bangladesh Chittagong Hill Tracts reside in NE India (Arunachal, Mizoram, Tripura).
16. Tourist Spots in India/Major City/Nicknames
Nicknames:
Silicon Valley of India: Bengaluru
Pink City: Jaipur
Blue City: Jodhpur
Orange City: Nagpur
City of Pearls: Hyderabad
City of Palaces: Kolkata
City of Joy: Kolkata
Queen of the Arabian Sea: Kochi
Venice of the East: Udaipur (also 'City of Lakes')
Manchester of India: Ahmedabad
Manchester of North India: Kanpur
Manchester of South India: Coimbatore
Spice Garden of India: Kerala
Princess of Hill Stations: Kodaikanal
Queen of Hill Stations: Ooty (Udhagamandalam)
Gateway to Eastern India: Kolkata
Land of Rolling Hills: Mizoram
Major Tourist Spots/Monuments:
Rajasthan: Jaipur (Hawa Mahal, Jantar Mantar, Amber Fort), Jodhpur, Udaipur (City Palace, Lake Pichola, Taj Lake Palace Hotel), Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples, only hill station), Pushkar (Brahma Temple), Ajmer (Dargah Sharif), Jaisalmer, Bikaner. Golden Triangle (Delhi-Agra-Jaipur). Jantar Mantar also in Delhi, Mathura, Varanasi, Ujjain.
Uttarakhand: Dehradun (Capital), Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Rishikesh, Haridwar, Kedarnath, Badrinath. Valley of Flowers. Jim Corbett National Park (Ramganga river flows through).
Himachal Pradesh: Shimla (Summer Capital pre-independence), Dharmashala (Second Capital), Kullu, Manali, Kasauli, Dalhousie. Manikaran (hot springs).
Jammu & Kashmir: Srinagar (Summer Capital, Dal Lake, Jhelum river), Jammu (Winter Capital, Tawi river), Gulmarg, Pahalgam, Vaishno Devi. Anantnag city.
Maharashtra: Mumbai (Gateway of India, Elephanta Caves), Ajanta & Ellora Caves (Aurangabad), Pune, Nagpur (Zero Mile Stone), Mahabaleshwar.
Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Sabarmati Ashram), Statue of Unity, Rann of Kutch, Gir Forest, Somnath Temple, Dwarka. Dholavira (Harappan site, UNESCO).
Madhya Pradesh: Khajuraho, Sanchi Stupa, Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, Gwalior Fort, Bandhavgarh Fort, Asirgarh Fort. Pachmarhi.
Odisha: Puri (Jagannath Temple, Rath Yatra), Konark Sun Temple, Bhubaneswar (Lingaraj Temple), Chilika Lake. Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves.
Bihar: Bodh Gaya (Mahabodhi Temple - UNESCO), Nalanda University ruins.
Tamil Nadu: Mahabalipuram (UNESCO), Chola Temples (UNESCO), Madurai (Meenakshi Temple), Kanyakumari (Vivekananda Rock), Ooty, Kodaikanal.
Kerala: Backwaters, Munnar, Thekkady (Periyar NP), Kochi. Sabarimala Temple.
Karnataka: Hampi (UNESCO), Mysore Palace, Badami Caves, Belur/Halebidu.
Delhi: Red Fort, Qutub Minar, Humayun's Tomb, India Gate, Lotus Temple, Akshardham. Jantar Mantar.
Kolkata: Victoria Memorial, Howrah Bridge, Dakshineswar Kali Temple.
Goa: Beaches, Churches (UNESCO), Fort Aguada. Dudhsagar Falls. Capital Panaji (Panjim).
Assam: Kamakhya Temple (Guwahati), Kaziranga NP, Manas NP. Majuli Island. Powa Mecca (Hajo). Haflong (hill station).
Andaman & Nicobar: Cellular Jail (Port Blair), Havelock Island (Swaraj Dweep), Neil Island (Shaheed Dweep), Ross Island (Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Dweep). Barren Island.
Other: Wagah Border (Amritsar), Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad), Auroville (Experimental city, TN/Puducherry).
18. Miscellaneous
Population: India is 2nd most populous (as per text timeframe/2019 revision). UP is most populous state. Sikkim has lowest population among states. Marathi is 3rd most spoken language (after Hindi, Bengali - based on 2011 census). Telugu is 4th most spoken. Malayalam is majority language in Lakshadweep. Ao is spoken in Nagaland. Kolhati in Maharashtra. Kangri in HP. Sanskrit is Indo-European.
Religion: Kerala has largest Christian population among states (2011 census). Maharashtra has largest Buddhist population (2011 census). Pushkar has only Brahma temple. Sabarimala (Kerala) for Lord Ayyappa. Puri for Lord Jagannath. Palitana (Gujarat) is major Jain pilgrimage site (Svetambara).
Water Management: Rainwater Harvesting (Tamil Nadu first state to make it mandatory), Bawri (traditional stepwell/tank), Khadins (Rajasthan), Ahars (Bihar), Bundhis (MP), Kulhs (HP - canal irrigation), Qanats (underground channels). Watershed management emphasizes water/soil conservation, improving land/water sources, increasing community income.
Environmental Phenomena: Loo (hot winds), Western Disturbances (winter rain), Mango Showers/Nor'westers (pre-monsoon). Cyclone Fani (hit Odisha 2019).
Disasters/History: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Amritsar, 1919).
Unique Features: Majuli (largest river island), Umananda (smallest river island), Barren Island (only active volcano), Loktak Lake (Phumdis), Cellular Jail (Kaala Paani).
Rankings: India (Area: 7th, Population: 2nd), Indian Railways (Network size: 4th largest), Nuclear Power (Source: 5th largest in India), Wind Power (Capacity: 4th globally).
State Formation: Telangana (from Andhra Pradesh, 2014), Uttarakhand (from UP, 2000), Jharkhand (from Bihar, 2000), Chhattisgarh (from MP, 2000). Nagaland (16th state, 1963). Sikkim (22nd state, 1975).
Cultural Aspects: Ram Setu (Palk Strait), Golden Triangle (Tourism: Delhi-Agra-Jaipur), Hollong (sacred tree, Assam).
Surveys/Data: Census 2011 (Population, Language, Religion), National Rubber Policy 2019, Indian Minerals Yearbook, ISFR (Forest Report), Ministry of Mines data, REN21 Report.
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