Indian Polity Notes Pinnacle SSC

 

Indian Polity Notes from OCR Text

1. The Constitution: Making & Framework

• Constituent Assembly:

  • Idea proposed by M.N. Roy (1934), formally stated by INC (Nehru, 1938).

  • Formed: Dec 6, 1946. Met first on Dec 9, 1946.

  • Total Sessions: 11. Sittings: 165 days (114 days on Draft Constitution).

  • Duration: 2 years, 11 months, 18 days.

  • Adoption: November 26, 1949 (Constitution Day).

  • Enforcement: January 26, 1950 (Republic Day).

  • Members: Total 389 initially (292 Provinces, 93 Princely States, 4 Chief Comm. Provinces). 284 members signed the final Constitution. Included 15 women.

  • Key Personnel:

    • Temporary President: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha.

    • Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

    • Vice President: H.C. Mukherjee.

    • Legal Advisor: B.N. Rau.

    • Drafting Committee Chairman: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar ('Father of the Indian Constitution'). Other members: K.M. Munshi, Muhammed Sadullah, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, D.P. Khaitan, B.L. Mitter.

    • Chief Draftsman: S.N. Mukherjee.

  • Calligraphers: Prem Behari Narain Raizada (English), Vasant Krishan Vaidya (Hindi).

  • Decoration: Nand Lal Bose, Beohar Rammanohar Sinha (Shantiniketan artists).

• Objective Resolution:

  • Moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on Dec 13, 1946.

  • Adopted on Jan 22, 1947.

  • Outlined philosophy and goals; basis for the Preamble.

• Nehru Report (1928): Drafted a constitution for India (Motilal Nehru + 8 others).

2. Preamble

• Describes India as: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.

• Keywords: 'Socialist', 'Secular', 'Integrity' added by 42nd Amendment, 1976.

• Amended only once (1976).

• Source of Ideals: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (France); Justice - Social, Economic, Political (USSR).

• Interpretations: 'Political Horoscope' (K.M. Munshi), 'Soul' (Thakurdas Bhargav), 'Identity Card' (N.A. Palkhiwala), 'Keynote' (Ernest Barker).

3. Salient Features of the Constitution

• Lengthiest Written Constitution.

• Drawn from Various Sources.

• Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility.

• Federal System with Unitary Bias ('Quasi-Federal' - K.C. Wheare; 'Federation with strong centralising tendency' - Ivor Jennings; 'Bargaining Federalism' - Morris Jones).

  • Federal Features: Dual Govt, Division of Powers (Lists), Written & Supreme Constitution, Rigid Constitution, Independent Judiciary, Bicameralism.

  • Unitary Features: Strong Centre, Single Constitution, Single Citizenship, Flexibility, Integrated Judiciary, Governor Appointment, All India Services, Emergency Provisions.

• Parliamentary Form of Government (Westminster Model - UK).

• Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty & Judicial Supremacy.

• Integrated and Independent Judiciary.

• Fundamental Rights (Part III).

• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Part IV).

• Fundamental Duties (Part IVA).

• Secular State (State doesn't promote any religion).

• Universal Adult Franchise.

• Single Citizenship (NOT Dual Citizenship).

• Emergency Provisions (Part XVIII).

• Three-tier Government (Central, State, Local - Panchayats/Municipalities added later).

• Basic Structure Doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati case).

4. Sources of the Constitution

• Government of India Act, 1935: Federal Scheme, Office of Governor, Judiciary, Public Service Commissions, Emergency provisions, Administrative details, Structural part.

• UK: Parliamentary government, Rule of Law, Legislative procedure, Single citizenship, Cabinet system, Prerogative writs, Parliamentary privileges, Bicameralism, Law-making process, Speaker's role, First Past the Post election system, Martial Law concept.

• USA: Fundamental Rights, Independence of Judiciary, Judicial Review, Impeachment of President, Removal of SC/HC Judges, Post of Vice-President, Preamble's beginning.

• Ireland: DPSP, Nomination of members to Rajya Sabha, Method of election of President.

• Canada: Federation with a strong Centre, Vesting of residuary powers in Centre, Appointment of state governors by Centre, Advisory jurisdiction of Supreme Court.

• Australia: Concurrent List, Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse, Joint sitting of Parliament.

• USSR (Russia): Fundamental Duties, Ideal of justice (social, economic, political) in Preamble.

• France: Republic, Ideals of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity in Preamble.

• Germany (Weimar): Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency.

• South Africa: Procedure for amendment of the Constitution, Election of members of Rajya Sabha.

• Japan: Procedure Established by Law.

5. Parts, Articles, Schedules, Lists

• Parts:

  • Part I (Art 1-4): The Union and its Territory.

  • Part II (Art 5-11): Citizenship.

  • Part III (Art 12-35): Fundamental Rights ('Magna Carta of India').

  • Part IV (Art 36-51): Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).

  • Part IVA (Art 51A): Fundamental Duties.

  • Part V (Art 52-151): The Union (Ch II: Parliament Art 79-122; Ch III: President's Legislative Powers Art 123; Ch IV: Union Judiciary Art 124-147; Ch V: CAG Art 148-151).

  • Part VI (Art 152-237): The States (State Legislature Art 168-212; High Courts Art 214-231).

  • Part VII: Repealed (States in Part B of First Schedule).

  • Part VIII (Art 239-242): The Union Territories.

  • Part IX (Art 243-243O): The Panchayats (added by 73rd Amnd).

  • Part IXA (Art 243P-243ZG): The Municipalities (added by 74th Amnd).

  • Part IXB (Art 243ZH-243ZT): Cooperative Societies (added by 97th Amnd).

  • Part XI (Art 245-263): Relations between Union & States (Legislative: 245-255).

  • Part XII (Art 264-300A): Finance, Property, Contracts, Suits (Financial Relations: 268-293).

  • Part XIV (Art 308-323): Services under Union & States (UPSC/SPSC: Art 315-323).

  • Part XIVA (Art 323A-323B): Tribunals (added by 42nd Amnd).

  • Part XV (Art 324-329A): Elections.

  • Part XVI (Art 330-342A): Special Provisions relating to Certain Classes.

  • Part XVII (Art 343-351): Official Language.

  • Part XVIII (Art 352-360): Emergency Provisions.

  • Part XX (Art 368): Amendment of the Constitution.

• Schedules (Total 12):

  • First: States & UTs names and territories.

  • Second: Emoluments, allowances, privileges (President, Governor, Judges, etc.).

  • Third: Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.

  • Fourth: Allocation of seats in Rajya Sabha.

  • Fifth: Administration/Control of Scheduled Areas & Tribes.

  • Sixth: Administration of Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram.

  • Seventh: Division of Powers (Union List - 100 items; State List - 61 items; Concurrent List - 52 items).

  • Eighth: Recognized Official Languages (22).

  • Ninth: Acts & Regulations saved from judicial review (added by 1st Amnd).

  • Tenth: Anti-Defection Law provisions (added by 52nd Amnd).

  • Eleventh: Panchayats powers, authority, responsibilities (29 matters) (added by 73rd Amnd).

  • Twelfth: Municipalities powers, authority, responsibilities (18 matters) (added by 74th Amnd).

• Key Articles Mentioned (Selected):

  • Art 1: Name and territory of Union ('Union of States').

  • Art 3: Formation/alteration of states.

  • Art 14: Equality before law.

  • Art 15: Prohibition of discrimination.

  • Art 16: Equality of opportunity (public employment). Art 16(4A): Reservation in promotion.

  • Art 17: Abolition of Untouchability.

  • Art 18: Abolition of titles.

  • Art 19: Freedoms (Speech, Assembly, Association, Movement, Residence, Profession).

  • Art 20: Protection re conviction (Ex-post facto, Double Jeopardy, Self-incrimination).

  • Art 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty (Right to Education flows from this - Mohini Jain case; Right to speedy trial; Right to privacy - Puttaswamy case).

  • Art 21A: Right to Education (6-14 years) (added 86th Amnd).

  • Art 22: Protection against arrest/detention. Advisory Board for preventive detention > 3 months.

  • Art 23: Prohibition of human trafficking/forced labour.

  • Art 24: Prohibition of child labour (<14 years).

  • Art 25-28: Right to Freedom of Religion. Art 26(c): Right to own property (religious denom.). Art 28: No religious instruction in state institutions.

  • Art 29-30: Cultural and Educational Rights (Minorities). Art 30: Right to establish/administer educational institutions.

  • Art 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies (Writs - 'Heart & Soul').

  • Art 33: Parliament power to restrict FR for forces.

  • Art 37: DPSP non-justiciable but fundamental.

  • Art 38: State to secure social order for welfare.

  • Art 39(b): Distribution of resources. Art 39(d): Equal pay. Art 39A: Free legal aid.

  • Art 40: Organise Village Panchayats.

  • Art 42: Just/Humane conditions, maternity relief.

  • Art 43: Living wage, cottage industries. Art 43A: Worker participation. Art 43B: Cooperative societies.

  • Art 44: Uniform Civil Code.

  • Art 45: Early childhood care/education (<6 years).

  • Art 46: Promote interests of SC/ST/weaker sections.

  • Art 47: Nutrition, standard of living, public health.

  • Art 48A: Protect environment (added 42nd Amnd).

  • Art 51A: Fundamental Duties.

  • Art 54: Election of President.

  • Art 56: Term of President. Art 57: Re-election eligibility. Art 59: Conditions of office. Art 61: Impeachment.

  • Art 63: Vice-President of India. Art 64/89: VP as ex-officio Chairman RS. Art 66: Election of VP.

  • Art 74, 75: Council of Ministers (Union), PM. Art 75(3): Collective responsibility to LS.

  • Art 76: Attorney General for India.

  • Art 77: Conduct of Union business.

  • Art 79: Constitution of Parliament.

  • Art 84: Qualification for Parliament membership.

  • Art 85: Sessions, prorogation, dissolution.

  • Art 88: Rights of Ministers/AG in Houses.

  • Art 100: Quorum in Parliament.

  • Art 101-104: MP Disqualification. Art 103: Decision on disqualification.

  • Art 108: Joint Sitting.

  • Art 109, 110: Money Bills procedure & definition.

  • Art 112: Annual Financial Statement (Union).

  • Art 120: Language in Parliament.

  • Art 123: President's Ordinance power.

  • Art 124: Establishment of Supreme Court. Art 124(2): Judge appointment.

  • Art 127: Ad-hoc Judges (SC). Art 129: SC as Court of Record. Art 130: Seat of SC.

  • Art 131: SC Original Jurisdiction.

  • Art 137: SC power to review judgments.

  • Art 141: SC law binding on all courts. Art 142: SC power for complete justice. Art 143: President consult SC (Advisory). Art 144: Civil/judicial authorities to aid SC.

  • Art 148-151: Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). Art 149: Duties/Powers. Art 151: Audit Reports.

  • Art 153: Governors. Art 154: Executive power. Art 155: Appointment. Art 159: Oath.

  • Art 164: CM/Minister appointment, collective responsibility to Assembly (164(2)). Art 164(1A): Min CoM strength (12).

  • Art 165: Advocate General for State.

  • Art 166: Conduct of State business. Art 167: CM's duty to inform Governor.

  • Art 168-172: State Legislature constitution, duration. Art 169: Abolition/Creation of Council. Art 173: Qualification. Art 174: Sessions. Art 175/177: Governor/AG rights in Houses.

  • Art 195: State legislator salaries.

  • Art 200: Governor's assent to bills.

  • Art 213: Governor's Ordinance power.

  • Art 214: High Courts for States. Art 215: HC as Court of Record. Art 217: Judge appointment/conditions. Art 226: HC Writ jurisdiction. Art 222: Judge transfer.

  • Art 239AA: Special provisions for Delhi (added 69th Amnd).

  • Art 243 series: Panchayats/Municipalities/Coops. Art 243B: Gram Sabha. Art 243E: Duration. Art 243K: Elections.

  • Art 257: Union control over States.

  • Art 265: No tax except by authority of law.

  • Art 266: Consolidated Funds, Public Accounts. Art 267: Contingency Fund.

  • Art 279A: GST Council (added 101st Amnd).

  • Art 280: Finance Commission. Art 281: Recommendations.

  • Art 300A: Right to Property (Legal right) (added 44th Amnd).

  • Art 301-307 (Part XIII): Trade, Commerce, Intercourse. Art 302: Parl power to restrict.

  • Art 315: Public Service Commissions (UPSC/SPSC). Art 317: Removal. Art 320: Functions.

  • Art 323A: Administrative Tribunals.

  • Art 324: Election Commission. Art 326: Universal Adult Suffrage.

  • Art 330, 332: Reservation for SC/ST in LS/Assemblies.

  • Art 338: NCSC. Art 338A: NCST. Art 338B: NCBC.

  • Art 343: Official language of Union (Hindi). Art 344: Commission on Official Language. Art 347: Special provision for language. Art 348: Language in SC/HC (English). Art 350A: Mother tongue instruction. Art 351: Promotion of Hindi.

  • Art 352: National Emergency. Art 355: Union duty to protect states. Art 356: President's Rule. Art 358/359: Suspension of FRs. Art 360: Financial Emergency.

  • Art 361: Protection of President/Governor.

  • Art 368: Amendment procedure.

  • Art 371 series: Special provisions for certain states (e.g., 371F Sikkim).

6. Citizenship (Part II, Art 5-11)

• Regulated by Parliament (Art 11) via Citizenship Act, 1955.

• Acquisition: Birth, Descent, Registration, Naturalization, Incorporation of territory.

• Termination/Loss: Renunciation, Termination, Deprivation.

• Act does not deal with election or holding property as condition.

• Commonwealth Citizenship provision repealed (2003).

• National Population Register (NPR) created under Citizenship Act 1955 & Rules 2003.

7. Fundamental Rights (FR) (Part III, Art 12-35)

• Source: USA Constitution.

• Called 'Magna Carta of India'. Aim: Establish political democracy.

• Justiciable (enforceable by courts, Art 32, 226).

• Six Categories: Equality (14-18), Freedom (19-22), Against Exploitation (23-24), Freedom of Religion (25-28), Cultural & Educational (29-30), Constitutional Remedies (32).

• Right to Property (Art 31) deleted as FR by 44th Amnd, 1978; now legal right (Art 300A).

• Available to Citizens Only: Art 15, 16, 19, 29, 30.

• Available to All (Citizens & Foreigners, except enemy aliens): Art 14, 20, 21, 21A, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28.

• Suspension: Can be suspended during National Emergency (Art 359), except Art 20 & 21.

• Restriction: Parliament can restrict for armed forces etc. (Art 33).

• Key Concepts/Cases: Rule of Law (Dicey, foundational), Double Jeopardy (Art 20(2)), Right to Education (Art 21A), Basic Structure (Kesavananda Bharati), Right to Privacy (Puttaswamy), Sabarimala entry (Art 14 vs 25 debate), Reservation policy (Art 16(4) clarifies not violation of equality).

8. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Part IV, Art 36-51)

• Source: Ireland Constitution.

• Aim: Establish a Welfare State, promote social & economic democracy.

• 'Novel features' (Ambedkar).

• Non-Justiciable, but 'fundamental in the governance of the country' (Art 37).

• Require legislation for implementation.

• Key Principles Mentioned: Social order for welfare (Art 38), Village Panchayats (Art 40), Living wage/Cottage Industries (Art 43), UCC (Art 44), Early childhood care (Art 45), Promote interests SC/ST (Art 46), Nutrition/Public Health (Art 47), Environment protection (Art 48A), Worker participation (Art 43A), Free legal aid (Art 39A).

• Amendments: 42nd Amnd added Art 39(f), 39A, 43A, 48A. 44th Amnd added Art 38(2). 97th Amnd added Art 43B.

9. Fundamental Duties (FD) (Part IVA, Art 51A)

• Source: USSR Constitution.

• Added by 42nd Amendment, 1976 (on Swaran Singh Committee recommendation - suggested 8, 10 added).

• 11th Duty added by 86th Amendment, 2002 (Parent's duty for education 6-14 yrs).

• Non-Justiciable. Considered statutory by courts in interpretation.

• List Includes: Respect Constitution/Flag/Anthem, Cherish freedom struggle ideals, Uphold sovereignty/unity/integrity, Defend country, Promote harmony/brotherhood, Preserve composite culture, Protect environment, Develop scientific temper, Safeguard public property, Strive for excellence, Provide education opportunity (6-14 yrs).

• Not Included: Pay taxes, Cast vote, Join defence forces (though defending country is a duty).

• Committees: Swaran Singh (recommendation), Justice Verma (identified legal provisions for implementation).

10. Amendments (Art 368, Part XX)

• Source of Procedure: South Africa.

• Types of Majority: Simple, Special, Special + State Ratification. Art 368 covers last two.

• Parliament cannot amend 'Basic Structure' (Kesavananda Bharati).

• Key Amendments Discussed:

  • 1st (1951): Land reform validation (9th Sch), FR restrictions.

  • 5th (1955): Amended Art 3 (State reorganisation procedure).

  • 7th (1956): State reorganisation, Governor for >1 state, HC jurisdiction to UTs.

  • 10th (1961): Incorporated Dadra & Nagar Haveli.

  • 21st (1967): Added Sindhi to 8th Schedule.

  • 26th (1971): Abolished Privy Purses.

  • 36th (1975): Sikkim statehood (Art 371F).

  • 40th (1976): Amended Art 297 (EEZ resources).

  • 42nd (1976): 'Mini-Constitution'. Added Preamble words, FD (Part IVA), 4 DPSPs.

  • 44th (1978): Reversed some 42nd changes, Right to Property legal right (Art 300A), Art 20/21 suspension protection, added DPSP Art 38(2).

  • 50th (1984): Amended Art 33 (FR for forces).

  • 52nd (1985): Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule).

  • 56th: Goa statehood.

  • 60th (1988): Increased Profession Tax ceiling.

  • 61st (1988): Voting age 21 -> 18 (Amended Art 326).

  • 69th (1991): Special status for Delhi (Art 239AA).

  • 71st (1992): Added Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali to 8th Schedule.

  • 73rd (1992): Panchayati Raj institutions (Part IX, 11th Sch).

  • 74th (1992): Municipalities (Part IXA, 12th Sch).

  • 77th: Added Art 16(4A) (Reservation in promotion).

  • 86th (2002): Right to Education (Art 21A), amended Art 45, added 11th FD.

  • 88th (2003): Added 'taxes on services' to Union List.

  • 89th (2003): Created NCST (Art 338A).

  • 91st (2003): Limited Minister size (15%), strengthened Anti-defection.

  • 92nd (2003): Added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali to 8th Schedule.

  • 93rd (2005): OBC reservation in educational institutions.

  • 97th (2011): Constitutional status to Cooperative Societies (Art 19(1)(c), Art 43B, Part IXB).

  • 99th (2014): NJAC (struck down by SC).

  • 100th (2015): India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement.

  • 101st (2016): Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council (Art 279A).

  • 102nd (2018): Constitutional status to NCBC (Art 338B).

  • 103rd (2019): 10% EWS Reservation (Amended Art 15, 16).

  • 104th (2019): Extended SC/ST reservation, removed Anglo-Indian nomination.

  • 105th (2021): Restored State power to specify SEBCs.

  • 127th Bill (2021) became 105th Act.

11. The Union Executive

• President (Art 52-62, 71-73 etc.):

  • Head of State. First President: Rajendra Prasad.

  • Election (Art 54, 55): Indirect, Electoral College (Elected MPs + MLAs).

  • Term (Art 56): 5 years. Holds office until successor enters.

  • Re-election: Eligible (Art 57).

  • Qualifications (Art 58): Citizen, 35 years, qualified for LS, no office of profit.

  • Conditions (Art 59): Not MP/MLA, rent-free residence, emoluments decided by Parliament (charged on CFI), cannot be diminished. Protection from legal proceedings (Art 361).

  • Oath (Art 60): By CJI.

  • Impeachment (Art 61): Quasi-judicial. Initiated either House, 1/4 members sign charge, 14 days notice, passed by 2/3 total membership of both Houses.

  • Vacancy (Art 62): Election before term expiry; if casual, within 6 months.

  • Powers: Executive, Legislative (Ordinance Art 123, Sessions Art 85), Judicial (Pardons Art 72, Appoints judges Art 124/217), Emergency (Art 352, 356, 360), Veto (Absolute, Suspensive, Pocket). Appoints PM, Ministers, Governors, Judges, AG, CAG, ECs, UPSC Chairman etc. Transfers HC judges (Art 222). Decides MP disqualification with EC (Art 103).

  • Flag Hoisting: Republic Day.

• Vice-President (Art 63-71):

  • Second highest office. First VP: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (1952). Second: Zakir Hussain. Third: V.V. Giri.

  • Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Art 64, 89).

  • Election (Art 66): Indirect, Electoral College (All MPs - elected & nominated).

  • Term: 5 years.

  • Acts as President during vacancy (Art 65).

  • Removal: Resolution in Rajya Sabha (effective majority) agreed to by Lok Sabha (simple majority).

• Prime Minister & Council of Ministers (CoM) (Art 74, 75):

  • PM = Real executive head, 'linchpin of government'. Appointed by President. Shortest serving (acting): G. Nanda.

  • CoM appointed by President on PM's advice.

  • Collective Responsibility to Lok Sabha (Art 75(3)).

  • Minister limit: 15% of LS strength (91st Amnd).

  • Can be member of either House; if not, must become member within 6 months.

  • Run the national government under parliamentary system.

• Attorney General for India (Art 76):

  • Highest law officer. Appointed by President. Holds office during President's pleasure.

  • Right of audience in all courts (Art 76(3)). Right to speak in Parliament (Art 88).

12. The State Executive

• Governor (Art 153-162, 164 etc.):

  • Head of State (Constitutional/Titular). Agent of Centre.

  • Appointment (Art 155): By President for 5 years (subject to President's pleasure). Can govern >1 state (7th Amnd). Non-partisan appointment recommended (Sarkaria Comm).

  • Qualifications (Art 157): Citizen, 35 years.

  • Oath (Art 159): Before CJ of High Court.

  • Powers: Executive (Art 154), Appoints CM/Ministers (Art 164), Advocate General (Art 165), Ordinance (Art 213), Pardons (Art 161), Assent to bills/Reserve for President (Art 200). Summons/Prorogues Legislature (Art 174). Lays Annual Financial Statement (Art 202). Special responsibility in some states (e.g., Art 371H Arunachal).

  • Protection from legal proceedings (Art 361). Emoluments decided by Parliament.

• Chief Minister & State CoM (Art 163, 164, 167):

  • CM = Real executive head. Appointed by Governor.

  • Ministers appointed by Governor on CM's advice. Hold office during Governor's pleasure.

  • Collective Responsibility to Legislative Assembly (Art 164(2)).

  • Minimum CoM strength: 12 (91st Amnd, Art 164(1A)). Max limit 15% Assembly strength.

  • CM's duty to communicate with Governor (Art 167).

• Advocate General for State (Art 165):

  • Highest law officer in state. Appointed by Governor. Holds office during Governor's pleasure.

  • Right to speak in Legislature (Art 177).

13. Parliament (Art 79-122)

• Bicameral: President + Lok Sabha (House of People) + Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

• Lok Sabha: Max 550 (530 States, 20 UTs). Term 5 years (extendable during emergency). Speaker presides. Money Bills originate here. CoM responsible to LS. First LS constituted 1952. Min age 25.

• Rajya Sabha: Max 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated by President). Permanent house, 1/3rd members retire every 2 years. Member term 6 years. VP is ex-officio Chairman. Min age 30.

• Sessions: Max gap 6 months. Summoned/Prorogued by President (Art 85). Recess = period between prorogation & reassembly.

• Proceedings: Question Hour, Zero Hour, Motions (No-Confidence, Censure, Closure, Cut), Discussions (Half-hour, Short Duration). Quorum 1/10th (Art 100).

• Language: Hindi/English (Art 120).

• Joint Sitting (Art 108): If deadlock. Presided by LS Speaker > Dy Speaker > RS Dy Chairman.

• Committees: Standing (e.g., PAC, Estimates, Public Undertakings - 1 yr tenure) & Ad Hoc.

• Opposition Leader: Salary Act 1977. Requires 1/10th strength.

• MP Disqualification: Grounds (Art 102), Decision (Art 103), Absence > 60 days (Art 101).

14. State Legislature (Art 168-212)

• Unicameral or Bicameral (Council - Vidhan Parishad). 6 states have Council.

• Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha): Max 500, Min 60 (exceptions exist). Term 5 years (dissolvable). Min age 25. Speaker presides. CoM responsible to Assembly.

• Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad): Permanent body (if exists). Created/Abolished by Parliament (Art 169). Member term 6 years, 1/3rd retire every 2 years. Min age 30. Composition varies (elected by MLAs, Local bodies, Graduates, Teachers; nominated by Governor).

• Sessions: Max gap 6 months (Art 174). Summoned/Prorogued by Governor.

• Quorum: 10 members or 1/10th (Art 189).

• Punjab Legislative Council abolished 1970. J&K Council abolished 2019.

15. Judiciary

• Structure: Integrated & Independent. Three-tier: Supreme Court -> High Courts -> District/Subordinate Courts.

• Supreme Court (Art 124-147):

  • Established Jan 28, 1950 (replaced Federal Court). Seat: Delhi (Art 130).

  • Composition: CJI + 33 Judges (appointed by President, Art 124). Retirement age 65.

  • Removal: Impeachment (proved misbehaviour/incapacity) by Parliament (special majority). First motion 1991.

  • Jurisdiction: Original (Art 131), Appellate (Art 132-134), Advisory (Art 143), Writ (Art 32), Court of Record (Art 129), Contempt power (Art 129, 142), Review own judgments (Art 137).

  • Law declared binding (Art 141). Ancillary powers via Parliament (Art 140).

• High Courts (Art 214-231):

  • One for each state (or common). Oldest: Calcutta (1862). Delhi HC est 1966.

  • Appointment: By President (Art 217). Retirement age 62.

  • Transfer: By President (Art 222).

  • Jurisdiction: Writ (Art 226), Court of Record (Art 215).

  • Language: English (Art 348).

• Judicial Concepts: Judicial Review, PIL (USA origin), Independence features, Rule of Law (Dicey).

16. Government Bodies & Commissions

• Election Commission of India (ECI) (Art 324, Part XV): Constitutional body. Est 1950. Conducts elections (Pres, VP, Parl, State Leg.). Multi-member since 1989/90. Tenure 6 yrs / 65 age. Model Code of Conduct issuer.

• State Election Commission: Constitutional body (Art 243K). Conducts Panchayat/Municipal elections. Appointed by Governor.

• Finance Commission (Art 280): Constitutional body. Est 1951. Chairman + 4 members. Appointed by President every 5 years. Recommends fiscal distribution. First Chairman: K.C. Neogy. Recommendations non-binding (Art 281).

• State Finance Commission (Art 243I): Constitutional body. Appointed by Governor every 5 years. Recommends resources for local bodies.

• UPSC/SPSC/JSPSC (Art 315, Part XIV): Constitutional bodies. UPSC/JSPSC Chairman/members appointed by President; SPSC by Governor. UPSC tenure 6 yrs / 65 age; SPSC/JSPSC tenure 6 yrs / 62 age. UPSC functions (Art 320). Salaries UPSC charged on CFI. SPSC Chairman removed by President.

• Comptroller & Auditor General (CAG) (Art 148-151): Constitutional body. Appointed by President. Tenure 6 yrs / 65 age. Audits Union/State accounts. Reports to President/Governor (Art 151).

• National Commission for SCs (NCSC) (Art 338): Constitutional body.

• National Commission for STs (NCST) (Art 338A): Constitutional body (added 89th Amnd).

• National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) (Art 338B): Constitutional body (added 102nd Amnd).

• National Commission for Women (NCW): Statutory body (NCW Act 1990). Est 1992. First Chairperson: Jayanti Patnaik.

• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC): Statutory body (PHRA 1993). Est 1993. Chairperson tenure 3 yrs / 70 age.

• Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT): Statutory body (Admin Tribunals Act 1985, Art 323A).

• NITI Aayog: Est Jan 1, 2015 (replaced Planning Commission). Executive body. Chairman: PM.

• Other Bodies: National Legal Services Authority (NALSA - Statutory, 1987 Act), National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR - Statutory, 2005 Act), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS - Statutory), Lokpal/Lokayuktas (Statutory, 2013 Act).

17. Miscellaneous

• Acts Mentioned: Representation of People Act 1951 (Sec 33(7), 62(5)), Official Language Act 1963, Biological Diversity Act 2002, LLP Act 2008, Right to Education Act 2009 (force 2010), NFSA 2013, Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016, IT Act 2000 (Digital India Bill successor), Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Arms Act 1959, Special Marriage Act 1954, IBC 2016, Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act 1971, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (replaced by PCMA 2006), Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act 1988, Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act 1907.

• Polity of Neighbours: Bangladesh (Bengali), Sri Lanka (Independence 1948, Constitution 1978), Nepal (Constitution 2015).

• Concepts: Rule of Law (Dicey), Limited Government, Coalition Government, Recess, Prorogation, Dissolution, Censure/No-Confidence Motion, Cognizable/Non-Cognizable offences.

• Firsts: LS Election (1951-52), Universal Franchise Election (Manipur 1948).

• Emergency: First (1962-68), Second (1971), Third (1975-77).

• Minorities: 6 notified religious minorities.

• National Symbols: Emblem (Adopted Jan 26, 1950, Sarnath Lion Capital, Motto: Satyameva Jayate), Flag (Adopted July 22, 1947, Designer: Pingali Venkayya), Anthem (Jana Gana Mana, Adopted Jan 24, 1950), Song (Vande Mataram, Adopted Jan 24, 1950).