Tuesday, March 25, 2025

Modern History THEORY NOTES YCT

 

1. Arrival of the Europeans in India

  • Vasco da Gama: Discovered sea route to India (1498), arrived at Calicut (Kozhikode), welcomed by Zamorin. First European via sea. Credited with sea route discovery. Cape of Good Hope route used.

  • Order of Arrival: Portuguese, Dutch, English, Danes, French.

  • Battle of Plassey (1757): Decisive EIC victory over Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-ud-daula), consolidated British dominance in Bengal.

  • British East India Company (EIC):

    • Established first Presidency at Surat.

    • First factory on East Coast: Masulipatnam (1611). Surat factory (1612).

    • First factory in Bengal: Hooghly (1651).

    • Royal Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I (Dec 31, 1600). Empowered EIC for trade posts.

    • Mughal Emperor Akbar was ruler of India at EIC's inception.

    • Also known as John Company.

    • Initially traded with East Indies, later China/India. Dissolved 1874.

  • Portuguese:

    • First to discover sea route to India.

    • Captured Goa (1510) under Afonso de Albuquerque; first territorial possession in Asia. Liberated 1961.

    • Gifted Bombay to British King Charles II as dowry (1661/1662).

  • French: Colonies included Surat, Puducherry, Masulipatnam etc. French EIC founded 1664.

  • Thomas Roe: Secured trading rights from Emperor Jahangir (1615-18).

  • Queen Victoria: Crowned Empress of India in 1877.

  • Pre-EIC Exports: Silk, cotton textiles, spices, pearls, indigo, saltpetre, opium.

  • Christopher Columbus: Landed in America (1492) while seeking India.

  • Arab Merchants: Exported Indian goods to Europe via Red Sea/Mediterranean before sea route discovery.

2. Rise and Development of Marathas

  • Shivaji: Founder of Maratha Empire. Born Shivneri Fort (1630). Used Guerilla tactics. Appointed 'Ashtapradhan' (council of 8 ministers). Succeeded by Sambhaji (1680) after war of succession with Rajaram.

  • Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated Marathas, leading to loss of Maratha power.

  • Treaties:

    • Treaty of Salbai (1782): Settled First Anglo-Maratha War.

    • Treaty of Bassein (1802): Between EIC and Baji Rao II, weakened Maratha confederacy.

3. Independent States (Mysore/Bengal/Punjab/Awadh)

  • Bengal:

    • Battle of Plassey (1757): EIC (Clive) defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. Mir Jafar became puppet Nawab. EIC gained political power. Fought on Bhagirathi river.

    • Battle of Buxar (1764): EIC (Munro) defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, Shah Alam II. Established real British sovereignty.

    • Diwani Rights (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa): Granted to EIC (1765) by Shah Alam II (Treaty of Allahabad).

    • Murshid Quli Khan: First Nawab, shifted capital Dhaka to Murshidabad.

    • Nerve centre of Indian nationalism (early 20th C).

  • Mysore:

    • Hyder Ali: Ruler (1761-82). Fought first two Anglo-Mysore wars. Signed Treaty of Madras (1769) after 1st war.

    • Tipu Sultan: Ruler (1782-99). Associated with Srirangapatnam (capital). Used title Badshah. Died in 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799). Mosque in Kolkata.

    • Four Anglo-Mysore Wars fought.

    • Battle of Porto Novo (1781): Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali (2nd War).

    • Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) ended by Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).

    • Mysore Palace (Amba Vilas): Residence of Wadiyar Dynasty.

  • Awadh:

    • Nawab Wajid Ali Shah: Annexed (1856), exiled to Calcutta.

    • Asafi Imambara (Bara Imambara): Located in Lucknow, built by Asaf-ud-Daula.

    • Called "Nursery of the Bengal army".

  • Punjab: Captured by British in 1849 after Second Anglo-Sikh War.

  • Hyderabad: Largest feudal state pre-independence. Last Nizam: Mir Osman Ali Khan. Integrated via Operation Polo (1948).

  • Carnatic Wars: First Carnatic War (1746-48) - French captured Madras, ended by Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle.

4. Political, Social and Economical Development in Colonial Period

  • Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act: Passed 1856, legalizing widow remarriage. Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded association (1850).

  • Regulating Act (1773): First British parliamentary act to regulate EIC activities, mainly in Bengal.

  • Government of India Act 1935: Called 'charter of slavery' by Nehru. Abolished provincial dyarchy, introduced it at center. Abolished Indian Council.

  • Government of India Act 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms): Basis for several reforms.

  • Suez Canal (1869): Opening intensified British control over India's foreign trade by reducing transport costs.

  • Charter Act 1813: Ended EIC trade monopoly (except tea and China trade). Also known as East India Company Act, 1813.

  • Charter Act 1853: Empowered EIC to retain territories in trust for Crown. Introduced open competition for civil services.

  • Municipal Corporation: Calcutta (1726 by royal charter), Madras (1688, oldest).

  • Indian Council Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reform): Introduced separate electorates for Muslims. Named after Lord Morley (Sec. of State) & Lord Minto (Viceroy).

  • Railways: First line laid 1853 (Bombay to Thane) under Lord Dalhousie. Enabled long-distance travel. First passenger train operated between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane. Operated by Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Maharashtra hosted first passenger train.

  • Bengal State Prisoners Regulation (Bengal Regulation III): Passed 1818, allowed preventive detention.

  • Dadabhai Naoroji: First Indian member of British House of Commons (1892). First to discuss poverty concept (based on subsistence diet cost). Calculated per capita income (1867-68, Rs. 20). Wrote "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India". Known as "Grand Oldman of India".

  • Subsidiary Alliance: Introduced by Lord Wellesley (term by Dupleix). Nizam of Hyderabad was first to accept (1798). Rulers lost sovereignty, couldn't maintain independent armies. Order: Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjore, Awadh, Peshwa, Scindia, Gaekwad.

  • Permanent Settlement (Bengal, 1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis. Fixed land revenue with Zamindars. Raja Tej Chand was Raja of Burdwan when implemented.

  • Textile Mills: First mill at Fort Gloster near Calcutta (1818, unsuccessful). First successful cotton mill in Mumbai (1854) by Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar.

  • Revenue Settlements:

    • Ryotwari System: Introduced by Thomas Munro (1820) in Bombay, Madras, Assam, Coorg. Peasants regarded as owners, paid tax directly. First settlement in Bombay Deccan (1820s).

    • Mahalwari System: Devised by Holt Mackenzie (1822), popularised by Bentinck (1830s) in Central Province, NWFP, Agra, Punjab. Village headman collected revenue.

    • Izaredari System (1773): Introduced by Warren Hastings. Right to collect revenue auctioned for 5 years.

  • Presidencies: Bengal, Bombay, Madras were key administrative divisions (Presidency towns).

  • Jute Mills: First jute mill established at Rishra near Calcutta (1855) by George Acland and Bysumber Sen.

  • Colonial Rule: First established in Bengal.

5. Development of Education in Modern India

  • Central Hindu College (Banaras): Founded by Annie Besant (1898), later handed to Madan Mohan Malviya (formed BHU).

  • Wood's Despatch (1854): Sent by Charles Wood (President, Board of Control) to Lord Dalhousie. Considered 'Magna-Carta' of English Education. Recommended vernacular languages for primary, Anglo-vernacular for high school, English for college. Led to universities in Bombay, Madras, Calcutta (1857). Concerned with Education reforms.

  • Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875): Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Became Aligarh Muslim University (1920).

  • William Hunter Commission (1882): Appointed by Lord Rippon to review education progress post-Wood's Despatch.

  • Western Education Advocate: Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated for western education and English language.

  • Deccan Education Society (Pune, 1884): Founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar.

  • Gyan Prasarak Mandali (Adult Education): Formed by Dadabhai Naoroji (1848).

  • English as Medium of Instruction: Made official in 1835 by William Bentinck based on Macaulay's Minute.

6. Newspaper and Magazines

  • First Newspaper in India: 'The Bengal Gazette' / 'Hicky's Gazette' (1780) by James Augustus Hicky in Calcutta.

  • 'Kesari' (Marathi Newspaper): Founded and edited by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1881).

  • 'Maratha' (English Newspaper): Also run by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

  • 'Sambad Kaumudi' (Bengali Weekly): First Indian language newspaper, started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1821).

  • 'Mirat-ul-Akhbar' (Persian Newspaper): Also started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

  • 'Samachar Darpan' (1818): Considered the first Vernacular (Bengali) newspaper. Editor: John Clark Marshman.

  • 'Udant Martand' (1826): First Hindi language newspaper. Published by Jugal Kishore Shukla. Hindi Journalism Day: May 30.

  • 'Commonweal' (Weekly, 1914): Founded by Annie Besant.

  • First Printing Press: Established by British in Calcutta (1778). Portuguese set up first in India (Goa, 1556).

  • 'The Bombay Times' & 'Journal of Commerce': Started 1838, renamed 'The Times of India' in 1861.

  • Bhagavad Gita (English Translation): First translated by Sir Charles Wilkins (1785).

  • 'Young India' (English Weekly): Published by Mahatma Gandhi (1919-1931).

  • Other Gandhi Publications: 'Navajivan' (Gujarati/Hindi), 'Harijan' (1933), 'Indian Opinion' (South Africa, 1904).

  • 'A Nation in Making' (Book): Written by Surendranath Banerjee.

  • Vernacular Press Act (1878): Proposed by Lord Lytton to curb criticism in vernacular press.

  • Revolutionary Journals:

    • 'Yugantar' (Bengali, Calcutta, 1906) by Bhupendra Nath Dutt & Varindra Ghosh. (NOT published abroad).

    • 'Talvar' (Berlin).

    • 'Free Hindustan' (San Francisco) by Taraknath Das.

    • 'Indian Sociologist' (London) by Shyamji Krishna Verma.

  • 'Al Hilal' (Urdu Weekly): Started by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1912-14) for propagating nationalism.

7. The Revolt of 1857

  • Key Leaders & Centres:

    • Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of Nawab of Awadh). Led uprising May 1857.

    • Kanpur: Nana Saheb.

    • Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai (Manikarnika Tambe). Martyred June 18, 1858 near Gwalior.

    • Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar (Last Mughal Emperor). Nominal leader.

    • Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan.

    • Bihar: Kunwar Singh.

    • Allahabad: Liaquat Ali.

    • Barout (UP): Shah Mal (Jat leader, mobilised Chowrasee des). Killed July 1857.

  • Bahadur Shah Zafar: Last Mughal Emperor. Exiled to Rangoon (Burma) after revolt, died 1862. Was Emperor when Meerut mutiny began (May 10, 1857).

  • Immediate Cause: Introduction of Enfield rifle with greased cartridges (beef/pork fat), offending Hindu/Muslim sepoys. Henry Hardinge introduced these rifles.

  • First Spark: Mangal Pandey (34th Bengal Native Infantry, Barrackpore) fired at superiors (March 29, 1857). Hanged April 8, 1857.

  • Outbreak: Began at Meerut (May 10, 1857).

  • Suppression: By mid-1858. Peace proclaimed July 8, 1858 by Lord Canning. Tatya Tope captured/hanged April 1859.

  • Impact: Powers transferred from EIC to British Crown (Government of India Act, 1858).

  • Views on Revolt:

    • R.C. Majumdar: "Neither first, nor national, nor a war of independence".

    • V.D. Savarkar: Called it the First War of Indian Independence. Planned National revolt.

  • Symbol: Lotus and Chapati.

  • Governor-General during Revolt: Lord Canning.

  • Bithoor (Kanpur): Served as Nana Saheb's headquarters.

  • Involved Battalion (Sitapur): 41st Native Infantry involved in killing white officers.

  • Not Involved: Bhagat Singh was not part of the 1857 revolt.

  • Maharaja Mehtab Chand (Burdwan): Helped British during revolt.

8. Peasant Revolt and Peasant Movement

  • Kisan Sabha Movement: Started in Bihar (1929) under Sahajanand Saraswati. Led to All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS). Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was first President of AIKS (1936).

  • Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel against tax hike. Women gave him the title 'Sardar'. Associated with Vallabhbhai Patel.

  • Moplah Rebellion (Malabar Rebellion): Took place 1921-1922 in Kerala. Uprising of Muslim tenants (Moplahs) against British rulers and Hindu landlords. Led by Ali Musliyar, Variankunnath Kunjahammed Haji. Described as Peasant Revolt.

  • Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroha): Bengal (1859-60). Peasants refused to grow indigo. Led by Digambar & Vishnu Biswas. Portrayed in Dinbandhu Mitra's play "Nil Darpan". Indigo Commission formed (1860, Chairman WS Seton-Kar), stopped forced cultivation.

  • Nil Darpan (Play): Written by Dinbandhu Mitra, depicted indigo farmers' exploitation.

  • Velu Thampi: Dalawa of Travancore. Led revolt against British (1808). Hanged publicly.

9. Tribal Movements

  • Khonds (Odisha): Movement (1846) under Chakra Bisoi against ban on human sacrifice (Mariah) and new taxes. Peace agreement signed 1848.

  • Santhal Revolt (1855-56): Jharkhand. Led by Murmu brothers (Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav) against EIC and Zamindari system. Broke out in 1855. Maharaja Mehtab Chand helped British.

  • Anandamath (Novel): Written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1882). Set during Sannyasi Rebellion. Contains 'Vande Mataram'.

10. Social and Religious Movement

  • Prarthana Samaj: Established Bombay (1867) by Atmaram Pandurang. Reform movement within Hinduism. M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined (1870). Mahadev Gobind Ranade was an early leader.

  • Self-Respect Movement (1925): Founded by Ramanathan, led by E.V. Ramaswami (Periyar). Aimed for equal rights for backward castes.

  • Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932): Founded by Mahatma Gandhi to eradicate untouchability. Ghanshyam Das Birla (President), Amritlal Takkar (Secretary).

  • Serampore Mission (1800): India's first Christian missionary organization. Founded by William Carey and associates.

  • Atmiya Sabha (1815): Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta. Precursor to socio-religious reforms in Bengal. Philosophical discussion circle.

  • Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1828) in Calcutta. First Pradhanacharya: Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Debendranath Tagore succeeded Roy as leader. Preceded by Brahmo Sabha. Advocated education, opposed Sati, child marriage, social division.

  • Mahila Seva Mandal (1852): Started by Savitribai Phule to promote women's rights.

  • Organizations & Founders:

    • Poona Sarvajanik Sabha – M.G. Ranade.

    • Satyashodhak Samaj – Jyotiba Phule.

    • Hindustan Socialist Republican Association – Chandra Shekhar Azad.

    • Theosophical Society – Annie Besant (associated). Founded 1875 (NY), HQ Adyar (Madras). Promoted 'brotherhood'.

  • Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded by Swami Vivekananda (disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa) near Calcutta. Philanthropic organization. HQ at Belur Math (West Bengal).

  • Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1875) in Bombay. HQ later Lahore. Slogan: "Back to Vedas". Campaigned against idol worship, caste system, animal sacrifice etc. Dayanand Saraswati called 'Martin Luther of India'.

  • Asiatic Society (of Bengal): Founded by Sir William Jones (1784) in Calcutta. Promoted oriental studies.

  • Servants of India Society (1905): Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in Pune. Aimed at social service and reforms.

  • Ramakrishna Paramhansa: Original name Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya. Teacher of Swami Vivekananda.

  • Indian Social Conference: Started 'Pledge Movement' to prohibit Child Marriage.

  • East India Association (1866): Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London.

  • Veda Samaj (Madras, 1864): Established by Keshav Chandra Sen. Renamed Brahmo Samaj of Southern India (1871) by K. Sridharalu Naidu.

  • Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati: Sanskrit scholar, women's rights activist. Awarded 'Kaisar-i-Hind'. Improved women's rights. Established Mukti Mission (Pune, 1889) for widows. Great scholar of Sanskrit.

  • Tattwabodhini Sabha (1839): Founded by Debendranath Tagore to propagate Ram Mohan Roy's ideas. Merged back into Brahmo Samaj (1859).

  • Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Founded by Jyotiba Phule (Pune). Aimed to spread education among lower castes, rejected Brahman domination, opposed caste system, idolatry. Phule wrote 'Gulamgiri'.

  • Young Bengal Movement: Initiated by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta, arrived 1826). Group of Bengali free thinkers inspired by French Revolution ideals. Derozio was main proponent.

11. Indian National Congress (INC)

  • Formation: Founded 1885 by A.O. Hume (retired British civil servant). First session held in Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College), presided by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. 72 delegates attended. Lord Dufferin was Viceroy.

  • A.O. Hume: First General Secretary.

  • Early Presidents:

    • First: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (1885, Bombay).

    • First Parsi: Dadabhai Naoroji (1886, Calcutta).

    • First Muslim: Badruddin Tyabji (1887, Madras).

    • First European: George Yule (1888, Allahabad).

  • Key Sessions & Resolutions:

    • Calcutta Session (1906): Presided by Dadabhai Naoroji. Adopted Swaraj (Self-Govt.), Swadeshi, Boycott. Swaraj declared goal.

       

       

       

      • Surat Session (1907): Split between Moderates and Extremists over presidentship (Rash Behari Ghosh elected over Lala Lajpat Rai) and resolutions. Fought on Tapti river bank. Extremists left INC.

      • Lucknow Session (1916): Presided by Ambika Charan Majumdar. Moderates and Extremists reunited. Lucknow Pact signed between INC and Muslim League. Allowed religious minority representation.

      • Calcutta Session (1911): National Anthem 'Jana Gana Mana' sung for the first time.

      • Lahore Session (1929): Presided by Jawaharlal Nehru. 'Purna Swaraj' (Complete Independence) resolution passed. Decision to celebrate Jan 26 as Independence Day. Tricolour hoisted. Nehru Report rejected. Sanctioned Civil Disobedience Movement.

      • Karachi Session (1931): Presided by Sardar Patel. Endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme. Praised Bhagat Singh etc. sacrifice but reiterated non-violence.

      • Belgaum Session (1924): Only session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi.

      • Haripura Session (1938) & Tripuri Session (1939): Subhas Chandra Bose elected President. Formed National Planning Committee (Chairman: Nehru). Bose resigned in 1939 after defeating Gandhiji's candidate (Pattabhi Sitaramayya) and formed Forward Bloc. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was president for 6 continuous years (1940-46).

      • Faizpur Session (1937): First session held in a village. Presided by Nehru. Demand for Constituent Assembly put forward.

      • Women Presidents:

        • First Lady President: Annie Besant (1917, Calcutta).

        • First Indian Woman President: Sarojini Naidu (1925, Kanpur).

        • First Woman President post-Independence: Indira Gandhi (1959).

      • President during Independence (1947): J.B. Kripalani.

      • Quit India Resolution: Passed by AICC in Bombay (August 8, 1942).

      • Safety Valve Theory: Opined by Lala Lajpat Rai; suggested Hume founded INC as an outlet for Indian discontent with Dufferin's implicit support.

      • Notable Figures: Surendranath Banerjee (President 1902, NOT extremist). Dadabhai Naoroji (President 3 times). B.R. Ambedkar never presided.

      • Vande Mataram: Sung first time at 1896 Calcutta session. First Muslim lady to sing: Rehana Tyabji.

      12. Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement

      • Announced/Ordered: July 1905 by Lord Curzon (Viceroy).

      • Implemented: October 16, 1905.

      • Reason given: Administrative measure. Real reason: Undermine nationalism ('Divide and Rule').

      • Swadeshi Movement: Launched August 7, 1905 (Calcutta Town Hall) in protest. Led by Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal). Also called Era of Passionate Nationalists (1905-08).

        • Methods: Boycott of foreign goods, promotion of Swadeshi (Indian goods), emphasis on self-reliance. Gave impetus to cotton production.

        • Tricolour Flag Designed (Bengal): Red, Green, Yellow with 8 lotuses (provinces) and crescent moon (Hindu-Muslim unity).

        • Gopal Krishna Gokhale advocated moderate approach.

      • "Amar Sonar Bangla": Composed by Rabindranath Tagore during this period (later Bangladesh national anthem).

      • Repeal: Announced 1911 by Lord Hardinge II during Delhi Durbar.

      • Bombay Swadeshi Co-operative Stores (1905): Opened by Tilak and Ratanji Tata.

      13. Muslim League

      • Formation: Founded December 30, 1906, in Dhaka. Founders included Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah Khan. Lord Minto-II was Viceroy.

      • Lahore Resolution (1940): Adopted demand for separate Muslim-majority state(s) (Pakistan Resolution). Drafted by Zafarullah Khan, presented by Fazlul Haque. Idea of separate state first mooted by Iqbal (1930). Term 'Pakistan' coined by Chaudhary Rehmat Ali (1933).

      • Demand for Pakistan: Made in 1940 at Lahore Session.

      • Direct Action Day: Observed August 16, 1946, to demand Pakistan. Led to 'Calcutta Killings'.

      • Karachi Session (1943): Adopted slogan 'Divide and Quit'.

      • Opposition to Partition: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan strongly resisted the demand.

      • Dissolved: August 14, 1947.

      14. Delhi Darbar

      • Held: 1877, 1903, 1911.

      • Purpose: Mark succession/coronation of British Monarchs (Empress Victoria, Edward VII, George V).

      • 1911 Darbar:

        • Attended by King George V and Queen Mary.

        • Annulment of Partition of Bengal announced.

        • Announcement of transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Foundation stone of New Delhi laid by George V.

      15. Homerule Movement

      • Inspired by: Irish Home Rule movement.

      • Timeline: 1916-1918.

      • Two Leagues:

        • Bal Gangadhar Tilak's (April 1916, Pune). President: Josef Baptista, Secretary: NC Kelkar.

        • Annie Besant's (September 1916, Adyar, Madras). President: Annie Besant, Secretary: George Arundale.

      • Objective: Achieve Home Rule (self-government) within the British Empire through constitutional means.

      • Association: Served as a subsidiary unit of the Indian National Congress.

      16. Revolutionary Movement

      • First Nationalistic Movement: Emerged from Bengal.

      • Khudai Khidmatgar (1929): Founded by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Badshah Khan/Frontier Gandhi). Non-violent movement, also known as 'Red Shirts'. Formally joined INC.

      • Lal-Bal-Pal: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal). Extremist leaders. Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright...".

      • Madam Bhikaji Cama: 'Mother of Indian Revolution'. Unfurled first version of Indian flag (Sapta Rishi flag - Green, Saffron, Red) at Stuttgart, Germany (1907). Flag smuggled into India by Indulal Yagnik.

      • Legislative Assembly Bombing (Delhi, April 8, 1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw smoke bombs. Protest against Public Safety Bill & Trade Disputes Bill.

      • Lahore Conspiracy Case: Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev hanged (March 23, 1931) for murder of J.P. Saunders (mistaken for James Scott) to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death.

      • Chandrashekhar Azad: Involved in Kakori Robbery, HSRA. Shot himself dead at Alfred Park, Allahabad (Feb 27, 1931). Used alias 'Pandit Harishankar Brahmachari'.

      • Kakori Train Robbery (August 9, 1925): Organized by Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). Planned by Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan. Key figures executed: Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri. Bhagat Singh was NOT involved.

      • Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen. Pritilata Waddedar led raid on Pahartali European club, died consuming cyanide.

      • Alipore Bomb Case (1908): Attempt to murder Magistrate Kingsford. Bomb thrown by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki (killed 2 British women). Chaki committed suicide, Bose hanged (age 18). Aurobindo Ghosh defended by C.R. Das. Sri Aurobindo involved.

      • Rand Murder (Pune, 1897): Plague Commissioner Rand shot dead by Chapekar brothers (Damodar, Balkrishna) for tyrannical plague measures.

      • Organizations:

        • Anushilan Samiti (Bengal, 1902): Founded by Pramathanath Mitra. Leaders included Barindra Ghosh, Jatindranath Banerjee, Aurobindo Ghosh. Rajendra Lahiri NOT associated.

        • Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (1924): Founded by Sachindra Sanyal etc.

        • Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) (1928): Reorganized HRA. Established at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi. Key members: Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev etc. Nana Sahab NOT a member.

        • Ghadar Party (1913): HQ Yugantar Ashram, San Francisco. Founded by Lala Har Dayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna (President).

        • India House (London), Berlin Committee (Germany).

      17. Rowlatt Act

      • Year: Passed March 1919.

      • Official Name: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919.

      • Provisions: Allowed indefinite detention without trial, censorship of press, arrest on mere suspicion.

      • Nickname: 'Black Act'.

      • Comment: 'No dalil, no vakil, no appeal'.

      • Gandhi's Response: Launched nationwide Rowlatt Satyagraha (started April 6, 1919) - first national level movement. Asked people to observe day of non-violent opposition.

      18. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

      • Date: April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day).

      • Location: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab.

      • Reason for Gathering: Protest against Rowlatt Act and arrest of leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew & Dr. Satya Pal. Peaceful Baisakhi celebration.

      • Incident: Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on unarmed crowd. Resulted in hundreds dead, thousands injured.

      • Aftermath:

        • Hunter Commission appointed to investigate. Condemned Dyer's actions but no disciplinary action taken.

        • Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood.

        • Mahatma Gandhi returned his Kaiser-i-Hind medal.

      • Revenge: Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor of Punjab at the time of massacre) in London (1940).

      19. Non-Cooperation/ Khilafat Movement

      • Timeline: Launched August 1, 1920 (Non-Cooperation); Khilafat began Oct 1919. Combined movement 1920-22.

      • Leadership: Mahatma Gandhi (Non-Cooperation); Ali Brothers (Mohammad Ali, Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad (Khilafat).

      • Reasons: Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Rowlatt Act, Khilafat issue (preserve authority of Ottoman Sultan/Caliph), demand for Swaraj.

      • Methods: Boycott of foreign goods, govt services, schools, courts, titles; promotion of Swadeshi, Hindu-Muslim unity; non-violence. Working class strikes.

      • Withdrawal: Called off by Gandhi on February 12, 1922, after Chauri Chaura incident (violence).

      • Educational Institutions Established: Jamia Millia Islamia, Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith etc. (Serampore College NOT part of this).

      • Khilafat Committee (1919): Formed to defend Caliph's position. All India Khilafat Conference (Delhi, Nov 1919) presided by Gandhi. Resolution passed (July 1921) barring Muslims from army service.

      20. Swaraj Party

      • Formation: January 1, 1923 (announced at Gaya session end 1922, formed March 1923). Also known as Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party.

      • Founders: Chittaranjan Das (C.R. Das - President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary).

      • Reason: Disagreement within Congress over council entry after withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement. Swarajists wanted to enter councils to obstruct British policies from within.

      • Key Leaders: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, N.C. Kelkar, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy.

      21. Mahatma Gandhi and his Initial Movement

      • Return to India: January 9, 1915, from South Africa. Commemorated as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas.

      • Political Mentor: Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Advised Gandhi to travel India first.

      • First Public Appearance: BHU foundation ceremony (February 1916).

      • Early Satyagrahas:

        • Champaran (1917, Bihar): First Civil Disobedience. Against forced Indigo cultivation (Tinkathia system). Invited by Raj Kumar Shukla.

        • Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike. For mill workers' wage hike.

        • Kheda Satyagraha (1918, Gujarat): First Non-Cooperation. Support peasants facing crop failure.

      • Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): First all-India Satyagraha. Against Rowlatt Act.

      • 'Hind Swaraj' (Book, 1909): Written in Gujarati. Outlined views on Swaraj, modern civilization. Suggested non-cooperation would end British rule.

      • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Led by Gandhi. Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura.

      • Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha, 1930): Start of Civil Disobedience Movement. Against British salt monopoly. Journey from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (approx 240 miles).

      • Titles:

        • 'Mahatma': Given by Rabindranath Tagore (1915).

        • 'Gurudev': Given by Gandhi to Tagore.

        • 'Father of the Nation': (Implied in Nehru's speech 1948).

      • Ashrams: Sabarmati, Tolstoy Farm (South Africa), Sewagram. (Paunar Ashram founded by Vinoba Bhave).

      • Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932): Founded to eradicate untouchability.

      • Natal Indian Congress (1894): Founded by Gandhi in South Africa to fight racial discrimination.

      • Kaiser-i-Hind Medal: Awarded for ambulance services (Boer War), returned after Jallianwala Bagh.

      22. Civil Disobedience Movement

      • Launch: Started with Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) on March 12, 1930. Breaking of salt law on April 6, 1930.

      • Leadership: Mahatma Gandhi.

      • Aim: Complete disobedience of British government orders.

      • Key Events:

        • Dandi March: Gandhi marched from Sabarmati to Dandi (Navsari district, Gujarat) with 78 followers to make salt.

        • Dharasana Salt Works Raid: Led by Abbas Tyabji after Gandhi's arrest, then by Sarojini Naidu. Met with brutal police suppression.

      • Spread: Vedaranyam March in Tamil Nadu led by C. Rajagopalachari.

      • Suspension/End: Temporarily suspended after Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Relaunched and finally suppressed.

      • 'All-Bengal Civil Disobedience Council': Formed by J.M. Sengupta.

      23. Simon Commission

      • Appointment: November 1927 by British Government.

      • Arrival in India: February 3, 1928.

      • Chairman: Sir John Simon.

      • Members: 7 British MPs (including Clement Attlee). No Indian members.

      • Purpose: Review functioning of Government of India Act 1919 and suggest further reforms.

      • Indian Response: Boycotted universally ("Simon Go Back") because of the absence of Indian members. Lala Lajpat Rai severely injured during protest in Lahore, died later.

      24. Gandhi Irwin Pact/ Round Table Conference

      • Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed March 5, 1931 between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin.

        • Key Terms: INC to suspend Civil Disobedience Movement, INC to participate in Second RTC, release of political prisoners (except those involved in violence), permission for peaceful picketing, withdrawal of ordinances, permission for coastal salt manufacture. Based on Gandhi's 11 demands.

      • Round Table Conferences (London):

        • First RTC (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931): Convened by Ramsay MacDonald (British PM). Boycotted by INC.

        • Second RTC (Sept - Dec 1931): INC participated, represented by Gandhi (and Sarojini Naidu for women). Failed due to communal representation disagreements.

        • Third RTC (Nov - Dec 1932): Boycotted by INC.

      • Attendees: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Tej Bahadur Sapru attended all three RTCs.

      25. Poona Pact

      • Signed: September 24, 1932, at Yerwada Jail, Poona.

      • Signatories: Mahatma Gandhi (represented by Madan Mohan Malaviya and other leaders) and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

      • Background: Gandhi's fast unto death protesting the Communal Award (August 1932) by Ramsay MacDonald, which granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes.

      • Outcome: Abandoned separate electorates for Depressed Classes. Instead, reserved seats were increased for them within the general Hindu electorate (from 71 to 147 in provincial legislatures, 18% in Central Legislature).

      • Depressed Classes Association: Organised by Ambedkar in 1930 demanding separate electorates.

      26. Azad Hind Fauj/ Subhash Chandra Bose

      • Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj:

        • Idea conceived by Mohan Singh. Founded September 1942 in Singapore.

        • Reorganized by Subhas Chandra Bose in Singapore (1943). Bose became Supreme Commander.

      • Provisional Government of Azad Hind: Formed by Bose on October 21, 1943, in Singapore.

      • Subhas Chandra Bose ('Netaji'):

        • Born Cuttack (Jan 23, 1897). Father: Janaki Nath Bose.

        • INC President (1938 Haripura, 1939 Tripuri). Resigned 1939.

        • Formed Forward Bloc (May 3, 1939).

        • Slogans: "Delhi Chalo", "Jai Hind", "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!".

        • Died in plane crash (reported) 1945.

      • Azad Hind Radio Service: Started 1942 in Germany (with Hitler's support), later shifted to Singapore.

      • INA Trials (Red Fort, 1945): Famous trial of P.K. Sehgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Shah Nawaz Khan. Defence led by Bhulabhai Desai, included Nehru, Asaf Ali.

      • Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Handed over by Japan (Nov 1943). Renamed 'Shaheed' and 'Swaraj' Islands by Bose.

      27. Cripps Mission / Constituent Assembly

      • Year: March 1942.

      • Sent by: British PM Winston Churchill.

      • Leader: Sir Stafford Cripps (member of War Cabinet).

      • Purpose: Secure full Indian cooperation and support for British efforts in World War II. Proposed Dominion Status after the war and formation of a constitution-making body.

      • Outcome: Failed as proposals were rejected by major Indian parties (INC, Muslim League). Postponed constitutional issue till war end.

      28. Cabinet Mission

      • Year: Arrived Delhi March 24, 1946.

      • Sent by: British PM Clement Attlee (Labour Party government).

      • Members: Three British Cabinet Ministers: Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President, Board of Trade), A.V. Alexander (First Lord of Admiralty). Sir John Simon NOT a member.

      • Purpose: Discuss transfer of power, formation of interim government, setting up of Constituent Assembly.

      • Outcome: Proposed formation of Constituent Assembly and interim government. Plan accepted initially but later led to disagreements, especially over grouping of provinces.

      29. Quit India Movement

      • Launch Date: August 8, 1942.

      • Location: Bombay (Gowalia Tank Maidan, now August Kranti Maidan). Resolution passed by CWC at Wardha (July 1942).

      • Leader: Mahatma Gandhi.

      • Slogan: "Do or Die" (Given by Gandhi).

      • Also Known As: August Movement / August Kranti.

      • Key Event: Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the INC flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan.

      • Aim: End British rule in India with immediate effect.

      • Outcome: Major leaders arrested immediately. Movement became leaderless but widespread. Led to realization by British that independence was inevitable. Cabinet Mission sent after this.

      30. Provincial Election

      • Year: 1936-37.

      • Basis: Government of India Act, 1935.

      • Outcome: Held in 11 provinces. INC won absolute majority in 5 provinces (Madras, Bihar, Orissa, Bombay, UP, CP) and formed coalition governments in others (Sindh, NWFP, Assam). Unionist Party formed govt in Punjab (with Muslim League).

      31. Mountbatten Plan/ Partition of India

      • Mountbatten Plan (June 3 Plan): Announced June 3, 1947 by Viceroy Lord Mountbatten. Outlined the process for partition and transfer of power.

      • Indian Independence Act 1947: Based on Mountbatten Plan. Passed by British Parliament.

        • Created two independent dominions: India and Pakistan (August 15, 1947).

        • Partitioned Bengal and Punjab.

        • Ended British Crown's control over Princely States, giving them option to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent (option later withdrawn).

        • Established office of Governor-General for each dominion.

      • Independence Day: August 15, 1947 (Midnight). Gandhi was in Calcutta calming riots. Nehru delivered 'Tryst with Destiny' speech.

      • Sovereign Republic: India declared itself Sovereign, Democratic, Republic on January 26, 1950 with adoption of Constitution.

      • Last Viceroy/First GG of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten.

      • First Indian Governor-General: C. Rajagopalachari.

      32. The Constitutional Development of India

      • Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909): Introduced separate electorates for Muslims. Lord Minto called 'Father of Communal Electorate'.

      • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919): Introduced Dyarchy in provinces. Bicameral legislature at center. Provided for Public Service Commission. Reviewed by Simon Commission.

      • Government of India Act 1935: Introduced Provincial Autonomy, abolished provincial Dyarchy, introduced Dyarchy at Center. Provided for All India Federation (never materialized). Based on principle of federation & parliamentary system.

      • Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Proposed Constituent Assembly to frame Constitution.

      • Charter Act 1813: Ended EIC trade monopoly except tea/China.

      • Regulating Act 1773: Based on Lord North committee report. First step to regulate EIC.

      • Indian Councils Act 1892: Introduced indirect elections.

      • Inland Emigration Act 1859: Restricted plantation workers from leaving tea gardens without permission.

      • Constituent Assembly (as on Dec 31, 1947): Maximum representation from United Provinces (55).

      33. Governors/Governors General/Viceroys

      • Robert Clive: First British Governor of Bengal Presidency. Introduced Dual Government.

      • Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of Bengal (1773). Established Madrasa in Calcutta (1781). Impeached. Started Izaredari system.

      • Lord Cornwallis: Introduced Permanent Settlement (1793). Father of Civil Services in India. Started Indian Civil Services (1793).

      • Lord Wellesley: Introduced Subsidiary Alliance (1798). Built Government House in Calcutta.

      • Lord William Bentinck: First Governor-General of India (1833). Abolished Sati (1829). Father of Modern Western Education. Made English medium of instruction (1835). Appointed Divisional Commissioners.

      • Lord Dalhousie (1848-56): Introduced Doctrine of Lapse (annexed Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi etc.). Annexed Awadh (1856). Introduced Railways (1853), Telegraphs, Postal system. Passed Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Rebuilt Grand Trunk Road. Youngest GG.

      • Lord Canning (1856-62): Last Governor-General (under EIC) & First Viceroy of India (1858). Handled Revolt of 1857. Passed Indian Councils Act 1861. Universities established (1857).

      • Lord Mayo (1869-72): Introduced financial decentralization. First Census held (1872). Established Statistical Survey. Murdered in Andaman.

      • Lord Lytton (1876-80): Passed Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act (1878). Held Delhi Durbar (1877).

      • Lord Ripon (1880-84): 'Father of Local Self Government'. Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1882). First Factory Act (1881). Hunter Commission (Education). Ilbert Bill Controversy.

      • Lord Dufferin (1884-88): INC formed during his tenure.

      • Lord Curzon (1899-1905): Partition of Bengal (1905). Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904). Archaeological Survey Dept established.

      • Lord Minto II (1905-10): Morley-Minto Reforms (1909). Muslim League formed.

      • Lord Hardinge II (1910-16): Capital shift Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Annulment of Bengal Partition. Delhi Durbar (1911). Awarded Kaiser-i-Hind to Gandhi. Royal Commission on Civil Services (1912).

      • Lord Chelmsford (1916-21): Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (GoI Act 1919). Rowlatt Act (1919). Jallianwala Bagh (1919). Non-Cooperation/Khilafat begins.

      • Lord Reading (1921-26): Chauri Chaura incident. Swaraj Party formed.

      • Lord Irwin (1926-31): Simon Commission arrives (1928). Nehru Report. Purna Swaraj declaration (1929). Civil Disobedience / Dandi March (1930). First RTC. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Announced 'Dominion Status' offer (1929). Inaugurated Parliament House (1927).

      • Lord Mountbatten: Last Viceroy of British India. First Governor-General of Independent India. Oversaw Partition (Mountbatten Plan).

      • C. Rajagopalachari: Last Governor-General of India (First and only Indian GG). Succeeded Mountbatten.

      • Surveyor-General: James Rennell (first for Bengal, 1767). Colin Mackenzie (first for India, 1815).

      • Charles Metcalfe: Known as 'Liberator of Indian Press'.

      34. Statement/Slogan/Titles

      • 'Deshbandhu': Chittaranjan Das (C.R. Das).

      • 'Iron Man of India': Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

      • 'Sardar': Title given to Vallabhbhai Patel by women of Bardoli (via Gandhi).

      • 'Mahatma': Title given to Gandhi by Rabindranath Tagore.

      • 'Gurudev': Title given to Tagore by Gandhi.

      • 'Frontier Gandhi' / 'Badshah Khan': Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.

      • 'Punjab Kesari' / 'Lion of Punjab': Lala Lajpat Rai.

      • 'Bismarck of India': Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

      • 'Father of Indian Civil Services': Lord Cornwallis / Sardar Patel (for independent India).

      • 'Father of Local Self Government': Lord Ripon.

      • 'Father of Indian Railways': Lord Dalhousie.

      • 'Liberator of Indian Press': Charles Metcalfe.

      • 'Martin Luther of India': Swami Dayanand Saraswati.

      • 'Nightingale of India': Sarojini Naidu.

      • 'Deenbandhu': C.F. Andrews (given by Gandhi/students).

      • 'Fuhrer': Adolf Hitler.

      • Slogans:

        • "Do or Die": Mahatma Gandhi (Quit India Movement).

        • "Delhi Chalo": Subhas Chandra Bose.

        • "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan": Lal Bahadur Shastri (1965 War).

        • "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!": Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

        • "Inquilab Zindabad": Bhagat Singh (popularized).

        • "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!": Subhas Chandra Bose.

        • "Simon Go Back": Yusuf Meherally (popularized during Simon Commission boycott).

        • "Total Revolution" (Sampoorna Kranti): Jayaprakash Narayan.

      • Quotes:

        • "The only hope of India is from the masses...": Swami Vivekananda.

        • Dams as 'temples of modern India': Jawaharlal Nehru.

        • Indian Railways contribution to freedom struggle: Mahatma Gandhi.

        • "South Africa made the Mahatma": Chandran Devanesan.

        • "No salvation for India unless you strip yourself...": Mahatma Gandhi (BHU Speech).

        • 'Indian nationalism is an elite phenomenon...': Mahatma Gandhi.

        • "The light went away from our lives": Jawaharlal Nehru (on Gandhi's death).

        • "Live as if you were to die tomorrow...": Mahatma Gandhi.

        • "We are what our thoughts have made us...": Swami Vivekananda.

        • 'In the practice of tolerance, one's enemy is the best teacher': Dalai Lama.

        • Awadh as 'a cherry that will drop into our mouth...': Lord Dalhousie.

      35. Important Monuments during British Period

      • Gateway of India (Mumbai): Built to commemorate visit of King George V & Queen Mary (1911). Inaugurated 1924. Style: Indo-Saracenic. Architect: George Wittet.

      • India Gate (New Delhi): All India War Memorial. Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens. Foundation stone 1921 (Duke of Connaught). Commemorates soldiers died in WW I & Afghan Wars. Amar Jawan Jyoti added 1971 (merged with National War Memorial flame recently).

      • Victoria Memorial (Kolkata): Built in memory of Queen Victoria. Designed by Sir William Emerson. Foundation 1906, opened 1921. Indo-British architecture ('Taj of the Raj'). White Makrana marble.

      • Parliament House (New Delhi): Constructed 1921-1927. Designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker. Inaugurated by Lord Irwin (1927).

      • Rashtrapati Bhavan (President House): Designed by Edwin Lutyens.

      • New Delhi City Plan: Designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker.

      • Fort William (Kolkata): Located on Hooghly river bank. Original fort attacked by Siraj-ud-Daula (1757), new one built. Site cleared included village of Gobindapur.

      • Charminar (Hyderabad): Built 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (Qutb Shahi Dynasty) to celebrate end of plague. Four pillars ('Char Minar'). Clocks added 1889.

      • Victoria Terminus (CST, Mumbai): Built 1888. Architect: F.W. Stevens. HQ of Central Railway.

      • Kashi Vidyapeeth (Varanasi): Established 1921 by Shiv Prasad Gupta and Bhagwan Das with Gandhi.

      • 7, Lok Kalyan Marg (Delhi): PM's official residence. Designed by Robert Tor Russell (part of Lutyens' team).

      • St. Angelo Fort (Kannur, Kerala): Built 1505 by first Portuguese Viceroy Francisco de Almeida.

      • Zero Mile Stone (Nagpur): Built 1907 by British during Great Trigonometrical Survey. Sandstone pillar and four horses. Marks geographical center of colonial India.

      • Banaras Hindu University (BHU): Established 1916 by Madan Mohan Malaviya. Foundation stone laid by Lord Hardinge II.

      36. India After Independence

      • Goa Liberation (1961): Freed from Portuguese rule via 'Operation Vijay' (December 19). Goa Liberation Day: Dec 19. Became state 1987.

      • Assam Accord (1985): Memorandum of Settlement signed between Government of India (Rajiv Gandhi) and AASU leaders regarding foreigners issue.

      • North East Frontier Agency (NEFA): Renamed Arunachal Pradesh, became Union Territory (1972). Became full state (1987).

      • Tashkent Agreement (1966): Signed between India (Lal Bahadur Shastri) and Pakistan (Ayub Khan) after 1965 war. Mediated by USSR. Pledged peaceful resolution.

      • Shimla Agreement (1972): Signed between India (Indira Gandhi) and Pakistan (Zulfikar Ali Bhutto) after 1971 war. Converted ceasefire line into Line of Control (LoC).

      • Bangladesh Liberation (1971): Bangladesh emerged independent from Pakistan (proclaimed March 26, became parliamentary democracy Jan 1972). India supported liberation forces.

      • Kargil War (1999): Conflict between India and Pakistan. Code name 'Operation Vijay'.

      • Services at Independence: Telegraph, Railways, Postal services were present. Call centres were NOT.

      • Gandhian Plan (1944): Formulated by Sriman Narayan Agarwal, emphasizing small units/agriculture.

      37. Modern History Miscellaneous

      • Soniji ki Nasiyan (Ajmer): Jain temple (Red Temple) dedicated to Rishabhdev. Built by Seth Moolchand Soni (19th C).

      • Shri Jagannath Temple Act: Passed 1955.

      • Population Livelihood (British Rule): Approx 85% lived in villages, dependent on agriculture.

      • Indian Toll Act: Passed 1851.

      • Delhi Land Reforms Act: Enacted 1954.

      • Indian Independence League (1907): Founded by Taraknath Das in California, USA.

      • First Indian ICS: Satyendranath Tagore (1863).

      • First Indian Member of British Parliament: Dadabhai Naoroji (1892).

      • Vivekananda Rock Memorial: Located in Kanyakumari. Built 1970.

      • First Female Chief Minister (India): Sucheta Kriplani (Uttar Pradesh, 1963).

      • Beginning of Modern Period in India: Usually regarded as 18th century (starting 1707 AD).

      • St. Peter's Basilica: Located in Vatican City.

      • Border Lines: Durand Line (India/Pak-Afghanistan), Radcliffe Line (India-Pakistan/Bangladesh), McMahon Line (India-China).

      • Desinagandu: Ancient name for Kollam (Kerala).

      • Naxalbari Revolt (1967): Armed peasant revolt in West Bengal. NOT against British restrictions.

      • Bretton Woods Agreement (1944): Established IMF and World Bank. Led to new international monetary system (1945).

       

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