Topic: Women's Reform Movements (WRM) - Part 1 (మహిళా సంస్కరణ ఉద్యమాలు)
Context & Overview:
This lecture is part of the larger Socio-Religious Reform Movements (SRRM) series.
It specifically addresses reforms related to the status and rights of women.
Key Issues Discussed:
Sati (సతి)
Widow Remarriage (వితంతు పునర్వివాహం)
Child Marriage (బాల్య వివాహాలు)
Female Infanticide (శిశు హత్య)
Women's Education (మహిళా విద్య)
Next Class Topics: Women writing about women (రచనలు), Women's organizations (సంస్థలు), Political rights (రాజకీయ హక్కులు), Voting rights (ఓటు హక్కు).
Sources Mentioned: Spectrum, NCERT (Class 8 - Women, Caste & Reform), Ambedkar Pragati Series, Degree books.
I. Sati (సతి)
Origin of Term: Linked to Mythology - Shankara's wife Sati self-immolated due to insult by her father (Daksha), not because her husband died. This is different from the later practice.
Historical Evidence:
First Inscription: Eran Inscription (ఎరాన్ శాసనం), 510 AD (Gupta Period).
Ruler: Bhanugupta (భానుగుప్తుడు).
Incident: His friend/general Goparaju (గోపరాజు) died fighting the Hunas (హూణులు). Goparaju's wife voluntarily committed Sati.
Discovered by: Alexander Cunningham (అలెగ్జాండర్ కన్నింగ్ హమ్).
Mahabharata: Madri (మాద్రి) committed Sati after Panduraju's (పాండురాజు) death, driven by guilt (she felt responsible for his death due to a curse). Voluntary act.
Prevalence:
Not common in Vedic/Ancient India.
Became more prevalent in Medieval India, especially in North India (Rajputs - రాజ్పుత్), Bengal (higher castes like Brahmins). Less common in South India.
Often linked to Muslim invasions (perceived threat to honour) leading to Jauhar (collective self-immolation by Rajput women) which later distorted into forced Sati.
Mostly confined to higher castes.
Early Abolition Efforts (Pre-1829):
Portuguese: Albuquerque (ఆల్బుకர்க்) in Goa (1510/1515).
Dutch: In Chinsura (చిన్సురా).
French: In Pondicherry (పాండిచ్చేరి).
Mughals: Akbar (1582), Aurangzeb tried.
Jaipur Raja also attempted a ban.
British Abolition:
Regulation XVII of 1829: Banned Sati, making it culpable homicide (నేరం).
Key Indian Reformer: Raja Ram Mohan Roy (RRMR) (Witnessed his sister-in-law's forced Sati, used Samvad Kaumudi newspaper, lobbied British using scriptures).
Key British Figures: Governor-General Lord William Bentinck (passed the Act), William Carey (Christian Missionary).
Initial Application: Bengal Presidency (Dec 4, 1829).
Extended to Bombay & Madras Presidencies (1830).
Opposition: Dharma Sabha (Founder: Radha Kanta Deb - రాధాకాంత్ దేబ్, Newspaper: Samachar Chandrika - సమాచార చంద్రిక, Editor: Bhabani Charan Bandopadhyay). Appealed to Privy Council, but the ban was upheld.
1861: Queen Victoria's proclamation made the ban applicable across all of British India.
II. Widow Remarriage (వితంతు పునర్వివాహం)
Key Reformer: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (ఈశ్వర చంద్ర విద్యాసాగర్).
Act: Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
Drafted by: Lord Dalhousie (డల్హౌసీ).
Passed/Implemented by: Lord Canning (కానింగ్). (Important Distinction).
Vidyasagar's Role: Used ancient scriptures to argue for widow remarriage, faced opposition but persisted, personally arranged and funded 25 widow remarriages.
First Official Remarriage (Post-Act): December 7, 1856 - Vidyaratna married Kalikadevi (విధ్యారత్న + కాళికాదేవి).
Other Key Figures & Institutions:
Andhra Pradesh: Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu (కందుకూరి వీరేశలింగం).
Bengal: Brahmo Samaj (esp. Keshab Chandra Sen).
Punjab: Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj).
Vishnu Shastri Pandit (విష్ణు శాస్త్రి పండిట్): Founded Widow Remarriage Association (1850s, pre-Act effort).
D.K. Karve (డికె కార్వే): Founded Widow Home in Pune, married a widow himself (Anandi Bai).
Sishupada Banerjee (శిశుపాద బెనర్జీ): Founded Widow Shelter (వితంతు శరణాలయం).
Ramabai Ranade (రమాబాయి రనడే): Founded Seva Sadan in Pune.
Behramji Malabari: Parsi reformer, founded Seva Sadan in Bombay (First President: Ramabai Saraswati). (Note: Two Seva Sadans mentioned, one by Ranade in Pune, one by Malabari in Bombay).
Karsondas Mulji (కర్సొందాస్ మల్జీ): Newspaper Satya Prakash (సత్యప్రకాశ్) supported the cause.
Opposition: Dharma Sabha also opposed this act.
III. Female Infanticide (శిశు హత్య)
Prevalence: More common in Bengal and among Rajputs.
Reasons: Considered girls a burden, dowry system, social pressures.
British Action:
1795 & 1802 Acts: Declared it illegal, equivalent to murder.
Key GGs enforcing bans: Lord Wellesley, Lord William Bentinck (1830s), Lord Hardinge I (1840s).
IV. Women's Education (మహిళా విద్య)
Initial Barriers: Belief that educated women become widows, neglect domestic duties, or challenge male authority.
Early Efforts:
Christian Missionaries (1818 - Calcutta Female Juvenile Society).
Key Institutions:
1848, Pune: First school for girls in India at Bhide Wada (భిడే వాడ).
Founders: Jyotirao Phule (జ్యోతి బాపులే) & Savitribai Phule (సావిత్రిబాయి పూలే).
Savitribai: First woman teacher in India, Headmistress.
Fatima Sheikh (ఫాతిమా షేక్): Worked with Phules, considered the first Muslim woman teacher.
1849, Calcutta: Calcutta Female School (later Bethune School).
Founders: John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune (బెతూనే) (President of Council of Education), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (Secretary).
Funding: Dakshina Ranjan Mukherjee (దక్షిణ రంజన్ ముఖర్జీ).
Became Bethune College in 1879.
First Woman Graduate: Kadambini Ganguly (కాదంబిని గంగూలీ) (Also addressed INC in 1890).
Kadambini Ganguly: First woman in South Asia with Western medical degree. (Rukhmabai also noted as early woman doctor).
1916, Pune: First Women's University in India. Founder: D.K. Karve.
1916, Delhi: Lady Hardinge Medical College.
V. Child Marriage (బాల్య వివాహాలు)
Evolution of Laws:
1860 IPC: Set Age of Consent (for consummation) at 10 years.
1891 Age of Consent Act:
Raised age to 12 years.
Passed by: Lord Lansdowne.
Key Campaigners: Behramji M. Malabari (Parsi reformer), Rukhmabai (early woman doctor, child bride who refused cohabitation).
Trigger: Phulmoni Dasi case (10-yr-old died after marital rape).
Opposition: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (argued against British interference in Hindu customs).
1929 Sarda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act):
Set minimum marriage age: Girls 14, Boys 18.
Came into force: April 1930.
Named after key campaigner: Harbilas Sarda (హరబిలాస్ శారదా).
Supported by: Women's Indian Association (WIA), All India Women's Conference (AIWC), Nationalist leaders.
Passed by: Lord Irwin.
1949 Amendment: Girls 15, Boys 18.
1978 Amendment: Girls 18, Boys 21 (Current legal age).
2006 PCMA (Prevention of Child Marriage Act):
Replaced the 1929 Sarda Act.
Makes child marriage a crime (Punishment: 2 yrs jail + 1 Lakh fine).
Marriage is voidable (not automatically void) at the option of the minor (within 2 years of reaching age 18/21).
2021 Bill (Proposed Amendment to PCMA):
Aims to raise marriage age for girls to 21 (equal to boys).
Based on Jaya Jaitly Committee recommendations.
Referred to Parliamentary Standing Committee (Chair: Vinay Sahasrabuddhe; Only woman MP: Sushmita Dev).
Supported by some citing gender equality, health benefits. Opposed by others citing potential increase in elopements, interference with personal law, UNICEF suggesting focus on education/empowerment first.
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