indian polity 6

 Second Chapter

I. Special Characteristics of the Indian Federation:

*   A country's administrative powers can be classified as unitary or federal based on centralization and distribution.
*   "A government can be called a unitary government if it consistently exercises legislative powers related to the administration of a country through a single central legislature" - A.V. Dicey.
*   France, Britain, Israel, China, Japan, etc., follow a unitary system.
* "The distribution of a country's administrative powers between central and state governments by the constitution, and having the authority to act independently within their respective jurisdictions, can be referred to as a 'Federal Government'"- A.V Dicey
* The political instrument that balances the rights of states and national unity is called a federation." A.V.
* Countries like America, Russia, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Nigeria, Argentina, and India have federal characteristics.
* Because India has features of both Unitary and Federal System. India can be said as the combination of both the systems.
Features of the Indian Constitution:

* India is said as a "Cooperative federation with Strong Centralizing Tendency".- Sir Ivor Jennings
* "India generally acts like a federation, but in emergencies, it acts as a unitary government." - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
*   "India is a quasi-federal state" - K.C. Wheare
*   Granville Austin described the Indian Constitution (country) as a cooperative federation - & D.N. Banerjee
*   Because the Indian Constitution has many features of both the systems, it is described as a "Bargaining Federation" - Morris Jones
*   India is not a theoretically formed federation, meaning it's not formed by agreement; therefore, the states within the country do not have the right to secede from the Union. -G.N.Joshi

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*   The Indian Constitution, while having strong unitary features, has weak federal features; it doesn't have strong federal features and weak unitary features. - K.C. Wheare
*    "Eventhough India intended to follow federal system of governance in principle, it has been following unitary characteristics in practice" - K. Santhanam
*"India is practicing a true federal system" - Alexandrowicz
*    Paul Appleby, who conducted numerous studies on Indian administration, and others, in "Public Administration in India,".
*   described it as a federation, saying, "This federation was formed due to the wisdom of the constitution makers."
Distribution of Powers:

*   The 7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution contains lists related to the distribution of powers between the central and state governments.
(a) The Union List initially contained 97 subjects of national and international importance, but now has 99.
(b) The State List initially included 66 subjects of regional importance, but now has only 61.
(c) The Concurrent List included 47 subjects of regional importance that also require national attention; it now has 52.
*   Subjects not included in the three lists are called residuary powers, and the central government has authority over them.
*   The distribution of powers, a key feature of federal government, is enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
Written Constitution:

*   Since the transfer of power between the central and state governments occurs through the constitution, our constitution is written.
*   The jurisdiction of the central government's power is defined in Article 73, and that of the state governments in Article 162.
Rigid Constitution:

*   To make changes in governance in accordance with changing times and circumstances, the constitution must also be amended.
*   As per the America, when amending the federal features of our constitution, not only a special resolution of the central parliament but also the approval of the states is required.

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*In this matter, it needs special majority of the parliament and approval of the states, hence the constitution is rigid.
Independent Judiciary:

*   When disputes arise between the center and states, or between states, the Supreme Court resolves them according to Article 131.
*   The Supreme Court of India, independent of the central and state governments' jurisdictions, delivers judgments.
Supremacy of the Constitution:

*   In India, the central and state governments are formed by the constitution, derive their powers from it, and operate within its bounds.
*   The Supreme Court resolves issues between the center and states, or between states, according to the constitution.
*   Individuals, institutions, governments, and the judiciary as a whole must operate within the bounds of the constitution.
Two Levels of Government:

*   The central government formulates policies and administers matters of national and international importance, while state governments handle matters of regional importance.  Simultaneously two level of governments are formed.
Role of States in Constitutional Amendments:

*   When amending the federal features of the Indian Constitution, a two-thirds majority in Parliament is required, along with the approval of half of the states in the country.
*   This method for constitutional amendments was adopted from America.
States' Representation in Parliament:

*   The Rajya Sabha (Upper House) in the Indian Parliament represents the states.
*   The Rajya Sabha works to protect the rights of states in the matter of laws made by Parliament and constitutional amendments.
Features Not Present in the Indian Constitution (Compared to the US Federal System):

1.  Dual Citizenship: [In America, there is separate state and national citizenship.]
2.  Two Constitutions: [America has federal and state constitutions.]
3.  Separate Judiciaries for Center and States: [Federal Constitution - Supreme Court, State Constitutions - State High Courts.]

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Unitary Features of the Indian Constitution:
* G.N. Joshi, constitutional analyst said that Indian Constitution is not at all Quasi-federal, and have more Unitary Features.
* Justice K. P. Mukherjee said that the Indian Constitution cannot be described as federal. He said that the dominance of the Central Governement has weakened the federation.
(2) Single Citizenship.
(3) Integrated Judiciary
(4) Single Constitution
(5) Strong Central Government: In a true federation, there are strong states and a weaker central government.
(6) Dominance of the Central Government: Article 365 - States must follow administrative directives issued by the center. Otherwise, the center has the power to take action against state governments.
(7) Article 249 - If the Rajya Sabha approves a special resolution, the center has the power to legislate on a subject listed in the State List.
* The emergency powers in Part 18 demonstrate unitary features.
*During a national emergency under Article 352, during President's Rule imposed through Article 356, and during a financial emergency under Article 360, the central government can govern both the center and the states.
(8) Governor System:
- The Governor is the head of the state through the Constitution.
- State administration is carried out in the name of the Governor.
- The center has the power to appoint, transfer, and remove Governors.
(9). Central Hegemony in Constitutional Amendments:-
- Parliment can amend more provisions with a simple majority, or with two-third majority.
-The consent of states is only required in certain matters.
(10) Reorganization of states
-The authority to reorganize lies with the parliament
-The Central has its own decisions during the reorganization of states, regardless of the opinions of the respective states

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(11) Unequal representation in Rajya Sabha.
-   In the American upper house "Senate," all states have equal representation.
-   In our Rajya Sabha, the large state of UP has 31 seats, while the '4' northeastern states, except Assam, and Goa have only one seat each.
(12) Constitutional Bodies:
(a) All India Services Officers - IAS, IPS, IFS, etc. The chairman and other members of UPSC are appointed by the Central Government.
(b) Comptroller and Auditor General [CAG] - The CAG, who audits Central's accounts, also audits state government expenditure accounts.
*Article 148: The CAG is appointed by the President, meaning the Center.
(c) Central Finance Commission - The Finance Commission, which distributes revenue between the center and state governments, is appointed by the central government [the President].
(d) Central Election Commission - The CEC, which conducts general elections not only for Parliament but also for states, is also appointed by the Center.
(e) Inter-State Council - The 'Inter-State Council,' established to amicably resolve disputes arising between the center and states, or between states, is also formed by the Center.
(13) Extra-Constitutional Bodies:
(a) Planning Commission - The National Planning Commission formulates not only national plans for social and economic development in our country but also state plans. Its chairman is the Prime Minister. States do not have representation.
(b) National Development Council (NDC) - The NDC approves the draft plan prepared by the Planning Commission. The Prime Minister is also the chairman of the NDC, and although states have representation, it acts only as an advisory body to the Planning Commission.
** In 1994, the Supreme Court, ruling in the S.R. Bommai case, stated that the federal system followed by our country is an integral part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution, and therefore, the Center should not take actions contrary to it, thus linking the term 'federation' to our Constitution.

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Legislative Relations:

*   The 7th Schedule details the distribution of powers between the center and states through lists.
(A) Union List - At the time of the Constitution's implementation, this list contained 97 subjects. Currently, it has 99 subjects.
*   In 1956, through the 7th Constitutional Amendment, the subject of "production and distribution of goods for public interest" was removed from this list.
*   By adding Article 92(1) for levying taxes on interstate trade by the central government, Article 92(B) for Consignment Tax, and Article 92(C) for taxes on services, the constitution was amended.
*   Important subjects in this list:
    -   Defense, foreign affairs, currency;
    -   Banking, aviation;
    -   Shipping;
    -   Post offices, telephones;
    -   Citizenship.
    -   Supreme Court, High Court;

- Property taxes other than agricultural.

*   The Parliament has the power to make laws on the subjects in this list.
(b) State List - Contains 66 subjects of regional importance.
*   In 1976, during the Indira Gandhi government, 5 subjects were removed from this list through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, resulting in 61 subjects currently.
*   Key subjects:
    -   Agriculture, irrigation, land;
    -   Road, transport;
    -   Law and order;
    -   Local self-government;
    -   Entertainment;
- state excise
* The State has the authority to make laws pertaining to the subjects.

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* In some special circumstances, the central government also has the power to legislate on subjects listed in this list, as indicated by Articles 248, 250, and 252.

(C) Concurrent List: - This list grants concurrent powers to both the central and state governments. It had 47 subjects when the Constitution came into force and currently has 52.
-> In 1976, 5 subjects were added to this list through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment.
+ The 5 subjects added by 42nd amendment are as follows:
- Education'
- Forests ;
- Weights and Measures'
- Judicial Affairs;
- Population Control;

+ Other subjects : Trustees, Marriage, divorce, inheritance, newspapers
Labour Issues, Socio-economic planning, social security.
Civil Procedure Code, Criminal Procedure code.
etc..
-> Both levels of government have the power to legislate on the subjects in this list.
* The concept of 'Concurrent List' was borrowed by our country from Australia.
* M.V. Pylee described the concurrent list as the Twilight Zone.

(D) Residuary Powers - Subjects not listed in the above three lists and newly arising subjects are "Residuary Subjects."
→ The central government has the power to make laws on residuary subjects.
→ The concept of granting the center power over residuary subjects was borrowed from Canada.
* In America, which follows a true federation, the states have power over this list.
*   Any changes or amendments to the lists mentioned above require a two-thirds majority in Parliament and the approval of half of the states.
*   Part 11 of the Indian Constitution details the legislative relations between the center and states.

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Article 245:-
> It explains the legislative jurisdiction of the central and state governments.
Article 246:-
> The legislative jurisdiction of a state government applies only to the territory of that state. However, laws made by the central government apply not only to the territory of India but also to territories outside India.

*In the case of Wadia Vs. Bombay State, the S.C. ruled that income tax laws made by the Indian government also apply to companies in foreign countries that have branches in India.

Article 248:-> Parliament has the power to make laws on residuary subjects.
Ex: Gift Tax & Wealth Tax and etc.
* The Supreme Court decides whether a subject falls under the jurisdiction of residuary powers.
Article 249:-> If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution with a two-thirds special majority stating that a subject listed in the State List has national importance, then the power to legislate on that subject is transferred from the state to the center.
> The law made by Parliament based on the Rajya Sabha's resolution remains in force for one year.
> After one year, another resolution must be passed to extend it. It can be extended indefinitely in this way.

Article 250:-> During a national emergency, the central government can make laws on subjects in the State List.

Article 251:-> State governments cannot make laws that contradict the laws of the center, meaning they cannot make laws different from those made by the center under Articles 249 and 250.
Article 252:-> Two or more states can request the center to make laws on a specific subject listed in the State List.
> Based on the states' requests, the center makes laws on subjects in the State List.
Examples: Urban Land Ceiling Act, Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
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Article 253:- Laws made by the Indian Parliament in the context of implementing agreements made by the Indian government with foreign countries must be followed by the states.

Article 254:-> If the center and states make conflicting laws on a subject in the Concurrent List, the law of the center prevails.

[Administrative relations]

Article 201:- Bills passed by the state legislature can be sent by the state governor to the center for the President's consideration.
> The bill can become law only with the President's approval.

Article 31(A):- Prior approval of the President is mandatory for introducing bills related to the nationalization of assets in state legislatures.

Article 356:- Parliament makes laws necessary for administration in states where President's Rule is imposed.

Administrative Relations:
>> While the center and states adhere to their respective jurisdictions and exercise their executive powers, cooperative relations between the center and states may also exist in certain circumstances.

Article 256:- States must administer their affairs in accordance with laws made by Parliament and not in contradiction to the central government's administration.

Article 257:- States must follow the directives of the central government regarding the protection of national assets.

Article 258:- States must follow the center's directives in matters such as the construction of railways and telephone exchanges. However, the center bears the construction costs.

Article 259:-> The center can deploy armed forces in states for the maintenance of law and order.

Article 262:-> The center has the power to form commissions for the distribution of interstate river waters and for resolving disputes.
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Article 263:-The Central Government may create the 'Inter-State Council' for coordination between Centre and States.
Article 339:- States must follow the directives of the Central Government regarding the development of the STs and SCs.

Article 355:- The responsibility of protecting the states also lies with the Center.
Ex: In light of violent incidents in Nandigram and Singur in West Bengal, Mamata Banerjee demanded central intervention under this article.

Article 356:-> When President's Rule is imposed in a state, the entire state administration is handled by the Center.

Article 365:- If states do not follow the administrative directives issued by the central government, action can be taken against those state governments.
Ex:The dismissal of the E.M.S. Namboodiripad government in Kerala.
Article 155:- Governors, who play a key role in state administration, are appointed by the center.

Article 312:-> The central government creates new All India Services in the country.

Article 315:- The center forms the Joint Public Service Commission.
Financial Relations Between Center and States:

*   Part 13 of the Constitution details the financial relations between the center and states.
*   The central government levies taxes on 15 subjects in the Union List and generates revenue.
Ex: Corporate Tax, Customs duties on foreign exports and imports, Central Excise, Cess on property tax, Estate duties on non-agricultural land, etc.
* The main source of revenue for the Central Government is - Corporate Tax
*State Governments generate revenue by levying taxes on 20 entries,
Ex: Land Revenue, Water Cess, Road Transport, State Excise,Entertainment, Sales Tax.
*The primary source of revenue for State Governments is - Sales Tax.
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*   The center has income from residuary subjects like Gift Tax and Wealth Tax.
*   Article 265: In our country, taxes can only be levied and collected legally.
*   Article 266 - Consolidated Fund of India. All revenue received by the central government through various means is deposited in this fund.
    -   All expenditures incurred by the central government for various purposes are paid from this fund.
    -   Parliament has authority over this fund.
*   Article 266(1) - State Consolidated Fund.
    -   All revenue of the state governments is deposited in this fund.
    -   All expenditures incurred by the state government are paid from this fund.
    -   The state legislatures have authority over this fund.
*   Article 267 - Central Contingency Fund [Emergency Fund and Contingency Fund]
    -   This fund is established to address emergencies, meaning it is used during national disasters.
    -   The President of India has authority over this fund.
*   Article 267(1) - State Contingency Fund.
    -   This is used to address emergencies arising in the state.
    -   The state governor has authority over this fund.
Article 268>> Some taxes are levied by the central government but collected and utilized by the states. Ex: Stamp duties, cosmetics, medicines, policy transfers.
Article 269 > Some taxes are levied and collected by the center, but these are allocated to the states. Ex: Terminal Taxes, aviation, shipping, railways.
Article 270> Taxes are levied and collected by the central government, but the distribution is done between the center and the states. Ex: Income Tax.
Article 273> The center provides special assistance funds to states like Assam, Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar, which export jute goods.
Article 275 >> The central government provides assistance funds to states to cover their fiscal deficits and for development-related purposes.
Article 280 >> The President (central government) appoints the Central Finance Commission, which distributes revenue between the central and state governments.
Article 285>> Exemption from taxes on central government properties in states.
Article 287 >> Exemption from tax on electricity consumed for railways.
Article 292 >> State governments, for borrowing from foreign countries, along with Article 293 - must use their Consolidated Fund as
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security.
Article 302>> Parliament alone makes laws for free trade in our country.
Article 304> The center makes laws for interstate trade and commerce.
Article 307>> The center should establish a national trade and commerce council in our country.
*   If states want to get an overdraft from the RBI, they need the center's permission.
*   The center has the power to print currency to cover its fiscal deficit, but states do not have this option.
Article 360>> During a financial emergency in our country, states must follow all financial directives issued by the center.
*   In 2000, the 80th Constitutional Amendment - allocated 71% of the central government's revenue sources to the center and 21% to the states.
*   This amendment was made based on the recommendations of the 10th Finance Commission.

Disputes Between Center and States - Reasons:

*   Until 1967, the same political party, Congress, was in power at the center and in the states.
*   In the 4th general elections of 1967, non-Congress opposition parties, mainly regional parties, came to power in 8 states.
*   With Congress at the center and opposition parties in power in the states, states demanded more powers, leading to disputes between the center and states.
Centralization of Powers:

*   In countries following a true federation, states are given more powers, and the center is given limited powers, whereas in our country, the center has more and the states have fewer powers. Due to this centralization of power, states demanded greater autonomy and a redistribution of powers, leading to conflicts.
Political Reasons:

*   When one party or coalition is in power at the center, and other parties are in power in the states, political differences also impact center-state relations.
*   Economic Reasons: -
*The Center has more revenue sources.
*    States have responsibility to fulfil duties and functions.
*   States often have to depend on the center for the performance of their administrative duties, leading to criticisms from constitutional analysts like 'Santhanam' that the states' status has declined to that of glorified municipalities.
-> Governor System: Governors act as constitutional heads in the states of India. The entire state administration is carried out in the name of the governor.
•    Governors are appointed by the president and are dismissed. Centre transfers them, hence the Governors are accountable to the President.
•    Governors hold the key position in state administration, they have no accountability. Through the Governor, the central government exhibits dominance on States.
•    Individuals favorable for Central Government, who are from the party in power in center, are appointed as Governors in the states ruled by oppositions.
Article 356:
•    When there is constitutional breakdown in the states, Center implements presidents rule as per the constitution.
•    The parties who are ruling in centre, often dismiss the state governments ruled by other parties, thereby misusing their power.
•    In 2002, the constitution review commission report mentions about the misuse of this article for more than 100 times.
•    Autonomy for the States:
•To implement true federal system in India, there is a demand from states to implement independent authority to the states.
•    In 2000, J&K Assembly demanded complete autonomy, that is full independent authority.
Regional Parties:

•   In our diverse country, even national politics are dominated by regional parties.
•   Regional parties think narrowly for regional development and national interests.
>> Frequent Central Intervention:

•   The central governments frequently interfering in the administrative affairs of state governments, thus violating the rights and powers of the states.

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The same content as above. (Duplicate of parts of page 12 and the start of page 13, up to "•   The central governments frequently interfering...")

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Administrative Reforms Commission [ARC] - 1967:

*   To make appropriate recommendations for resolving disputes arising between the center and states, the Administrative Reforms Commission, headed by M.C. Setalvad, was formed in 1967.
*   The 'Setalvad Committee,' appointed by Indira Gandhi, submitted its report in 1969.
Key Points:

1)  There is no need to amend the constitution to give more powers to the states.
2)  The central government should take strict measures to avoid frequent interference in state government affairs.
3)  To recommend names of individuals to be appointed as governors, a special screening committee should be formed under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister.
4)  Only non-controversial persons should be appointed as governors.
5)  An Inter-State Council should be formed as per Article 263. One member from each Zonal Council should be given representation in this council.
6)  Revenue distribution between the center and states should be done only according to the recommendations of the Central Finance Commission.
7)  Assistance funds provided by the central government to states under Article 275 should be used only for establishing industries with productivity.
8)  Article 356 should not be misused.
9)  If any state government loses its majority in the Legislative Assembly, that matter should be proven only in the Assembly.

Rajamannar Committee Recommendations:

*   Dissatisfied with the recommendations of the Setalvad Committee, the DMK government in Madras in 1970 appointed a special committee headed by Madras High Court Justice P.V. Rajamannar.
*   The Rajamannar Committee studied center-state relations and made some suggestions for resolving issues.

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>> To give more powers to the states, the subjects in the Concurrent List should be redistributed immediately. For this, the constitution should be amended.

> To provide more financial resources to the states, states should be given more priority in the matter of powers to levy taxes.

> States should also have a share in Corporate Tax and customs duties on foreign exports and imports.
>When appointing Governors, the Central Government should compulsorily consult the state government.
>> Articles 356, 357, and 257 should be removed from the Constitution.
>> Disputes between the center and states, or between states, should be resolved only by the S.C.
>> All states should have equal representation in the Rajya Sabha.

>> The system of appointing 12 members nominated by the President to the Rajya Sabha should be abolished.
>> The central government should compulsorily provide representation to all states.

> When amending the constitution, Parliament should amend it with a two-thirds majority. Furthermore, the role of states in constitutional amendments should be increased.
>> All India Services like IAS, IPS, and IFS should be abolished immediately.

» An Inter-State Council should be formed with the Prime Minister as chairman and representation from all states.

>> When forming a government in a state and when removing a government from power, the decision should be made only according to the opinion of the Legislative Assembly.

Sarkaria Commission:

*   In 1983, with chief ministers of opposition-ruled states like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka demanding more powers for states, the Indira Gandhi government formed the Sarkaria Commission, headed by Justice Ranjit Singh Sarkaria.
*   Members of the Commission: D. Sivaraman, Srinivasan

*   In late 1987 - the Sarkaria Commission submitted its report to the Rajiv Gandhi government, making many recommendations on 247 subjects.
* This report was made public in 1988

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Out of a total of 247 recommendations, 179 have been implemented to date.
Key points:

<< The center should compulsorily consult the respective state governments when appointing governors.
<< A screening committee should be formed under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister to recommend the names of governors.
<< Only persons who are prominent in any field and non-controversial should be appointed as governors.
<< Those actively involved in politics should not be appointed as governors.
<< Persons belonging to the party in power at the center should not be appointed as governors in states where other parties are in power.

<< A code of conduct for governors should be established.

<< The name of the 'National Development Council' should be changed to 'National Economic Development Council,' and an Inter-State Council should be formed immediately with the Prime Minister as chairman and all state chief ministers as members.

<< All India Services like IAS and IPS should be expanded.  That is, Indian Education Services, Indian Engineering Service, and Indian Health & Medicine Service should be established.
<< The three-language formula should be compulsorily implemented in all states of India.
<< Necessary steps should be taken to provide more financial resources to the states. States should be given a share in Corporate Tax and the cess levied on income tax.
<< Central armed forces can be sent even if the respective states do not request it when law and order deteriorates.
* The opinion of state governments should be taken into account in matters of mines.
<< Autonomy and independence should be given to Prasar Bharati.
<< Appropriate priority should be given to local self-governing bodies as part of democratic decentralization.
<< Article 356 should be used only in rare circumstances as a last resort.
<< President's Rule should not be imposed without a governor's report.
* The state legislative assembly should be dissolved only after the Parliament approves the declaration made by the President under Article 356.

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Constitution Review Commission [2000]:

*   The NDA government formed a commission of 11 members headed by Justice M.N. Venkatachalaiah to review the functioning of the constitution in the past 50 years. This commission also recommended changes to be made in center-state relations in the country.
< The central and state governments of India should work together and cooperatively to establish a cooperative federal system.
<< Only distinguished and non-controversial persons should be appointed as governors.
<< The central government should amend the constitution to compulsorily consult the state government when appointing governors.
<< A screening committee under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister should be formed to recommend governors.
<< Governors should make their decisions within 6 months on bills passed by the state legislative assembly and sent for approval and there should be a constitutional amendment in this regard.

<< A tribunal consisting of three S.C. judges for interstate river waters and to implement the judgments passed by the Tribunal with in 2 months and Center Should take actions against the state government.
<< President's Rule should not be imposed without a governor's report.
<< The state legislative assembly should be dissolved only after the Parliament approves the declaration of President's Rule.
Madan Mohan Punchhi Commission:

*   In 2004, the UPA government announced that it would form a special commission to study center-state relations.
*   Following the UPA resolution of 2005, a commission of 5 members headed by Justice Madan Mohan Punchhi was formed in 2007.
*   The term of this commission is 2 years, but the center has the power to extend it.
*   In addition to studying the implementation of the Sarkaria Commission's recommendations, this commission will also suggest changes to be made between the center and states in the context of the economic reforms introduced in India since 1991.

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Anandpur Sahib Resolution:
*In 1973, The Akali Dal party of Punjab passed the resolution.
*Passed some resolution on issues related to Punjab, and issues related to sikh religion, they also approved some resolutions on Indian Federation and Centre-State relations.
*India should establish a federal system on the model of America.
*Central Government should be allocated with few subjects of National and International importance, and all the remaining subjects should be allocated to the states.
* The distribution of powers mentioned in the constitution should be re-divided.
* Chandigarh should completely be given to Punjab.
West Bengal Left Front Government Resolution
* In 1977, for the first time, the Left Front Government came into power under the leadership of Jyoti Basu.
*India must implement Federalism. For that, more authority should be given to states.
*Governor System, which is of no use, must be abolished immediately.
*Articles 356, 355 and 365 must be abolished.
*As states have more responsibilities in welfare of the states, Centre should allocate more financial support.
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Missing in translation(skipped)

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*   In 1992, through the 70th Constitutional Amendment, members of the Delhi and Puducherry legislative assemblies were also given the right to vote in the presidential election.
> Those who do not have the right to vote in the presidential election:
    (a) Members nominated by the President to the Rajya Sabha.
    (b) " " " " " " to LokSabha
    (c) Members nominated by the governors to the legislative assemblies.
    (d) Members of the legislative councils in 6 states.
>> Changes and additions to the 'Electoral College' can only be made through constitutional amendment by Parliament.

Article 55: Method of Electing the President

>> The President of India is elected by the members of the 'Electoral College' through the 'proportional representation' method.
*The method of Presidential Election is adapted from Ireland.
> Key features of the proportional representation system:
    (a) Members cast their vote according to preference.
    (b) The votes of the members are valued.
    (c) The winning candidate must secure a 'quota' of votes (more than 50% of the votes).
Vote Transfer Method: -
•   In the presidential election, the votes of MLAs and MPs are valued as follows.
Value of MLA Vote = (Total State Population / Number of Elected MLAs) x (1/1000)
•   States with the highest MLA vote value:
    * UP - 208
    * Tamil Nadu - 176
    * Maharashtra - 175
•   States with the lowest MLA vote value:
    * Sikkim - 7
    * Arunachal Pradesh - 8
    * Mizoram - 9
    * AP - MLA Vote Value = 148
*   Based on the 1971 census, MLA votes, reorganization of constituencies in legislative assemblies are determined based on the 1971 census.