History Notes from Pinnacle MCQs
I. Ancient & Medieval Context
King Mahabali: Ruled over Kerala.
Hafiz (Hafez): 14th-century Iranian poet. Collection: 'Diwan' or 'Diwan-e-Hafiz' (mostly Ghazals, in Persian).
Sufism (Tasawwuf): Mystic sect of Islam emphasizing introspection and spiritual closeness with God. 'Sama' means recitation of sacred songs.
Pushtimarg: Bhakti sect founded by Vallabhacharya. Krishna-centered worship, philosophy of Shuddha Advaita (Pure Nondualism).
Suryavamsi Gajapati Dynasty: Ruled parts of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (15th century). Founder: Kapilendra Deva (1434-66 CE).
Ahom Dynasty: Built 'Rang Ghar' (an early amphitheatre in Asia) by King Swargadeo Promotta Singha.
Islam: Founded by Prophet Muhammad in the Seventh century. 2nd largest religion globally (Christianity is largest).
Medieval Indo-Islamic Architecture: 'Pishtaq' means tall gateway (rectangular frame around an arched opening, e.g., in mosques, palaces).
II. European Arrivals & Influence
Portuguese:
Vasco da Gama: Arrived in Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498 during Zamorin's reign, discovering the sea route from Europe via Cape of Good Hope. Belonged to Portugal.
Francisco de Almeida: First Portuguese Viceroy of India (1505). Credited with Portuguese possession in India. Policy: Maintain strong naval power ("Policy of Blue Water").
Afonso de Albuquerque: Governor who captured Goa from Adil Shahis in 1510.
Duarte Barbosa: Portuguese writer (visited India ~1500-1516). Wrote 'The Book of Duarte Barbosa' about trade and society in South India.
Established first factory in Calicut (Kerala) in 1500.
Brought cotton textiles ('calico') to Europe.
Dutch:
Established first factory in Masulipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) in 1605.
British (East India Company - EIC):
Acquired charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, granting sole right to trade with the East.
First ship arrived at Surat in 1608.
First temporary factory: Masulipattam (1611).
First permanent factory: Surat (1613).
First factory on river banks: Hugli (1651).
Captured Pondicherry from the French in 1761.
Robert Clive: Soldier and first British administrator of Bengal. Led EIC in Battle of Plassey (1757). Served twice as Governor of Bengal (1758-60, 1764-67). Implemented Dual System in Bengal (1765). Arrived in Madras in 1743 aged 18. After Battle of Buxar, EIC appointed Residents in Indian states under Clive. Asked James Rennel to prepare map of Hindustan.
H.H. Cole: Appointed curator of ancient monuments (1880). Inventor, facilitated innovations in commerce and education.
'Ryot' in 18th-century British records meant Peasants (individual cultivators with land rights under Ryotwari system).
French:
Established Chandannagar colony in 1673 (permission from Ibrahim Khan, Nawab of Bengal). Located on right bank of Hooghly.
Other colonies: Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam (Andhra Pradesh) on Coromandel Coast; Mahe on Malabar Coast.
Established first factory in Surat (1668).
Joseph Francois Dupleix: Governor, first introduced the concept later known as Subsidiary Alliance.
Battle of Chandernagore (March 23, 1757): British Navy captured Chandernagore from the French.
Fort Saint Louis: French fort in Pondicherry, built by Francois Martin. Destroyed by British (1761).
III. Rise of British Power & Expansion
Key Battles & Events:
Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): EIC (Robert Clive) vs. Siraj-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) & French allies. EIC won. Considered the formal beginning of British Raj.
Battle of Buxar (1764): EIC (Hector Munro) vs. Combined forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor). EIC won. Led to grant of Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC by Shah Alam II.
Anglo-Mysore Wars:
First (1767-69): Hyder Ali vs. EIC.
Second (1780-84): Hyder Ali (died during war), then Tipu Sultan vs. EIC.
Battle of Porto Novo (1781): EIC (Eyre Coote) defeated Hyder Ali.
Third (1790-92): During Cornwallis's tenure. Ended with Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
Anglo-Maratha Wars:
First: Ended with Treaty of Salbai (during Warren Hastings' tenure).
Second: During Lord Wellesley's tenure.
Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816): During Lord Hastings' tenure.
Anglo-Afghan War:
First: During Lord Auckland's tenure. Tripartite Treaty (1838) signed by Auckland, Ranjit Singh, Shah Shuja to interfere in Afghanistan.
Battle of Imphal (1944): Japanese invasion of India during WWII. Turning point.
Annexation of Hyderabad (1948): Through 'Operation Polo' (police action). Nizam Osman Ali ruled 1911-48.
Key Policies for Expansion & Control:
Dual System in Bengal (1765-1772): Introduced by Clive. Diwani (revenue collection) with EIC, Nizamat (administration) with Nawab. Abolished by Warren Hastings (1772).
Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis (in Bengal, Bihar, Odisha). Zamindars became primary landowners; land revenue fixed permanently. NOT prevalent in Punjab.
Ryotwari System (1820): Devised by Capt. Alexander Read & Sir Thomas Munro. Prevalent in South India (first in Tamil Nadu), later extended. Farmers paid revenue directly to state. Based on Ricardian theory of rent.
Subsidiary Alliance (1798): Devised by Lord Wellesley. Indian rulers maintained British troops, accepted British political advice, paid for troop maintenance or ceded territory. Hyderabad was the first to sign (1798). Others: Mysore (1799), Awadh (1801), Peshwa (1802), Bhosle, Scindia (1803).
Doctrine of Lapse: Devised by Lord Dalhousie. If a ruler of a dependent state died without a male heir, the state was annexed. Annexed states: Satara (1848), Jaitpur & Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854), Nagpur (1854), Tanjore, Arcot (1855). Awadh described as "a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day" (1851), annexed in 1856 (on grounds of misgovernance). Withdrawn by Lord Canning. Kittur Chennamma led an early armed rebellion against this policy in 1824.
Policy of Paramountcy (under Lord Hastings, 1813-1823): Company claimed its authority was paramount/supreme over Indian states, power greater than theirs.
Financial Decentralization (1870): Introduced by Lord Mayo, separating provincial and central finance. Visualized development of local self-government.
IV. Governors-General & Viceroys (Selected)
Warren Hastings (Governor of Bengal 1772-73, Governor-General of Bengal 1773-1785): Abolished Dual System (1772). Regulating Act 1773 passed. First Anglo-Maratha War. Accused in Raja Nand Kumar (judicial murder) case. Established Calcutta Madrasa (1781).
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793, 1805): Introduced Permanent Settlement (1793). Daroga system (police reforms, 1792). Abolished Faujdari Courts, set up Circuit Courts. Third Mysore War. 'Father of Civil Service in India'. Charter Act of 1793.
Sir John Shore (1793-1798): Charter Act of 1793 passed.
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805): Introduced Subsidiary Alliance (1798). Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Lord Hastings (1813-1823): Policy of Paramountcy. Anglo-Nepal War.
John Adams (Acting): Licensing Regulation ordinance 1823 (Press regulation).
Lord William Bentinck (Governor-General of India 1828-1835): Abolished Sati (Bengal Sati Regulation, Dec 4, 1829) with Raja Ram Mohan Roy's help. Suppressed Thuggee, female infanticide. Made English the medium of higher education (English Education Act 1835, based on Macaulay's Minute). First Governor-General of India (Charter Act 1833).
Lord Metcalfe (1835-1836): 'Liberator of the Indian Press', repealed 1823 press regulations.
Lord Auckland (1836-1842): First Anglo-Afghan War. Tripartite Treaty (1838) with Ranjit Singh & Shah Shuja.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844): Annexation of Sindh (1843). Abolished slavery in India (1843).
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856): Doctrine of Lapse. Introduced Railways (1853, Bombay-Thane, 21 miles/34km). Introduced Telegraph. Wood's Despatch (1854). Public Works Department. Annexed Awadh (1856). Drafted Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act.
Lord Canning (Governor-General 1856-58, Viceroy 1858-1862): Revolt of 1857 occurred. Last Governor-General & First Viceroy. Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse. Indian Councils Act 1861. Indian Penal Code introduced. Passed Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (1856). University of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras established (1857). Decided Bahadur Shah Zafar would be last Mughal king (1856).
Lord Mayo (1869-1872): Financial Decentralization (1870). First regular census ordered (1871). Statistical Survey of India. Established Mayo College (Ajmer). Assassinated.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880): Vernacular Press Act (1878). Arms Act (1878). Held Delhi Durbar (1877) to acknowledge Queen Victoria as Empress of India. Great Famine (1876-78). Reduced Civil Services age limit.
Lord Ripon (1880-1884): 'Father of Local Self-Government' in India (Resolution 1882). Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1881). First Factory Act (1881). Ilbert Bill (1883): Introduced by Sir Courtenay Ilbert, sought to empower Indian judges to try Europeans in criminal cases; faced strong opposition from Europeans. Hunter Commission on Education (1882).
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888): Formation of Indian National Congress (1885).
Lord Curzon (1899-1905): Partition of Bengal (1905). Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904). Appointed Frazer Commission (Police reforms, 1902-03). Universities Act (1904). Calcutta Corporation Act (1899). Official Secrets Act (1904, curbed press freedom). Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa. Entrusted William Emerson to design Victoria Memorial Hall. Keen interest in restoring historical monuments.
Lord Minto II (1905-1910): Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909). Swadeshi Movement. Surat Split (1907). Foundation of Muslim League (1906).
Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916): Annulment of Partition of Bengal (1911). Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Delhi Durbar (1911). Defence of India Act (1915). Awarded Kaisar-i-Hind to Gandhi (1915).
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921): Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Govt. of India Act 1919). Rowlatt Act (1919). Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919). Non-Cooperation Movement launched. Hunter Commission on Punjab disturbances.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931): Simon Commission visit (1927). Nehru Report (1928). Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission (1927). Deepavali Declaration (1929). Lahore Session (Purna Swaraj, 1929). Dandi March & Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). First Round Table Conference (1930). Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936): Second & Third Round Table Conferences. Communal Award (1932) & Poona Pact. Government of India Act 1935.
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944): World War II. August Offer (1940). Cripps Mission (1942). Quit India Movement (1942). Bengal Famine (1943), ordered army relief.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947): Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (1945). Cabinet Mission (1946). Direct Action Day (1946). NOT a minister of Cabinet Mission Plan.
Lord Mountbatten (March-August 1947, Governor-General of India Aug 1947-June 1948): Last Viceroy & First Governor-General of independent India. Mountbatten Plan (June 3 Plan) for partition. Indian Independence Act 1947. Announced bifurcation into secular India and Islamic Pakistan.
Other Key Figures:
Mountstuart Elphinstone: Governor of Bombay (1819-27). Known for Elphinstone Code (uniform criminal law). Negotiated alliance with Shah Shoja (1808).
H.H. Cole: Appointed curator of ancient monuments (1880). Inventor, facilitated innovations in commerce and education.
James Rennel: First Surveyor General of Bengal (1767-1777). Conducted first comprehensive geographical survey. "Bengal Atlas" (1779), "Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan" (1782). Asked by Robert Clive to prepare map of Hindustan.
James Mill: Scottish economist/philosopher. Published 'A History of British India' (1817), dividing Indian history into Hindu, Muslim, British periods.
Thomas Macaulay: Chairman of first Law Commission. Key role in English Education Act 1835.
V. British Acts & Policies
Regulating Act (1773): First step to control EIC. Governor of Bengal became Governor-General of Bengal (Warren Hastings first). Supreme Court established in Calcutta.
Pitt's India Act (1784): Established Board of Control in England to supervise EIC political/military/revenue affairs ('Dual Control'). Strengthened British control. Called 'half-loaf system'.
Charter Act (1793): Renewed EIC charter for 20 years. Codified laws.
Charter Act (1813): Ended EIC trade monopoly (except tea & China trade). Allowed Christian missionaries to preach. Asserted Crown sovereignty. Extended EIC rule for 20 years. Allocated funds for education.
Licensing Regulation (1823): Press regulation by acting Gov-Gen John Adams. Repealed by Metcalfe.
Charter Act (1833): Ended EIC's commercial functions; became purely administrative body. Governor-General of Bengal became Governor-General of India (William Bentinck first). Abolished EIC monopoly on tea & China trade (ended EIC trade completely). Added law member to Governor-General's Council. Gave Governor General power to legislate for all British India.
Indian Slavery Act (1843): Abolished slavery (during Ellenborough's tenure).
Lex Loci Act (1850) / Caste Disabilities Removal Act (1850): Allowed converts (e.g., to Christianity) to inherit ancestral property. Made conversion easier.
Charter Act (1853): Separated legislative & executive functions of Governor-General's council. Introduced open competition for civil services (including Indians). Did not specify time limit for EIC rule.
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (1856): Legalized widow remarriage. Drafted by Dalhousie, passed by Canning. Efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar crucial.
Government of India Act (1858): Transferred power from EIC to British Crown after 1857 Revolt. Abolished EIC, Board of Control, Court of Directors. Governor-General became Viceroy. Created Secretary of State for India post in British government, assisted by 15-member Council of India. Ended Dual Government scheme. Queen Victoria's Proclamation. Office of first Accountant General established.
Indian Councils Act (1861): Introduced portfolio system. Included some non-official Indians in legislative councils for first time (nominated). Restored legislative powers to Bombay/Madras presidencies.
Press and Registration of Books (PRB) Act (1867): Regulated printing presses, publishing, registration of books/newspapers in India.
Indian Arms Act (1878): Restricted firearm possession, manufacture, sale by Indians without license (discriminatory). Enacted under Lord Lytton.
Vernacular Press Act (1878) ('Gagging Act'): Restricted vernacular newspapers publishing "seditious" material. Allowed asset confiscation. Not applicable to English press. Enacted under Lord Lytton. Repealed by Lord Ripon (1881).
Age of Consent Act (1891): Raised marriage consummation age for girls to 12 years.
Indian Councils Act (1892): Increased size of legislative councils. Introduced limited/indirect election principle for some non-official seats. Gave power to discuss budget (but not vote). Allocated seats for Indian representatives for first time.
Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904): Passed under Lord Curzon for protection/restoration of historical monuments.
Indian Official Secrets Act (1904): Curbed freedom of press. Enacted under Lord Curzon. Replaced later by 1923 Act.
Indian Councils Act (1909) / Morley-Minto Reforms: Increased size of Central & Provincial Legislative Councils (Central raised from 16 to 60). Introduced separate electorates for Muslims. Allowed supplementary questions, moving resolutions on budget. Declared Delhi the capital (shift from Calcutta announced 1911).
Government of India Act (1912): Related to appointment of separate Governor for Bengal province.
Defence of India Act (1915): Emergency law during WWI granting wide powers to suppress dissent. Passed under Lord Hardinge.
Government of India Act (1919) / Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: Introduced Dyarchy in provinces (reserved & transferred subjects). Bicameral legislature at Centre (Council of State, Legislative Assembly). Central Legislative Assembly term set at 3 years. Provided for a High Commissioner for India in London. Extended separate electorates (Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans). Separated central/provincial budgets. Mandated review after 10 years (led to Simon Commission). Did NOT introduce provincial autonomy.
Rowlatt Act (1919): Allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for up to 2 years based on suspicion. Opposed by Gandhi. Led to Jallianwala Bagh.
Trade Disputes Act (1929): Provided for system of tribunals to investigate/settle industrial disputes; imposed ban on strikes in public utilities without notice.
Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929): Fixed minimum marriageable age for girls at 14 and boys at 18. Sponsored by Harbilas Sarda.
Government of India Act (1935): Introduced provincial autonomy, abolished dyarchy in provinces. Introduced dyarchy at the Centre (never implemented). Provided for All-India Federation (never materialized). Established Federal Court, Reserve Bank of India. Abolished Council of India. Divided powers into Federal (59 items), Provincial (54 items), Concurrent (36 items) lists. Bicameralism in 6 provinces. Extended separate electorates (Depressed Classes, women, labour). First provincial elections held under this act in 1937.
Indian Independence Act (1947): Partitioned British India into India and Pakistan (effective Aug 15, 1947). Granted independence. Abolished Viceroy post, created Governor-General for each dominion. Ended British paramountcy over princely states. Empowered Constituent Assemblies. Declared British rule would end by June 30, 1948 (later advanced). British Empire transferred powers to Constituent Assembly on Aug 15, 1947.
VI. The Revolt of 1857
Beginning: Started May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny.
Immediate Cause: Introduction of Enfield rifle with greased cartridges (rumored to use beef/pork fat).
Mangal Pandey: Sepoy at Barrackpore (March 1857), refused cartridges, attacked officers, executed April 8, 1857.
Meerut Incident: May 9, 1857 - 85 soldiers refused rifles, imprisoned. May 10 - Soldiers revolted, marched to Delhi.
Delhi: Sepoys arrived May 11, 1857, proclaimed Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) as Emperor. Bahadur Shah II was later deposed, exiled to Rangoon. Decided in 1856 he'd be last Mughal king.
Key Centres & Leaders:
Delhi: Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan.
Kanpur: Nana Sahib (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II), Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan.
Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadr.
Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan.
Bihar (Arrah): Kunwar Singh.
Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah.
Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai.
Kittur Chennamma: Led rebellion against Doctrine of Lapse in 1824 (one of first rulers to lead armed rebellion).
Veer Surendra Sai: Freedom fighter from Odisha, continued revolt long after 1857.
British Suppression Leaders: John Nicholson, Henry Lawrence (died in Lucknow), Hugh Rose, Colin Campbell.
Battle of Chinhat (June 30, 1857): British under Henry Lawrence defeated by rebels near Lucknow.
Aftermath:
Rule transferred from EIC to British Crown (Govt. of India Act 1858).
Queen Victoria's Proclamation (November 1, 1858): Declared India governed by/in the name of the British Monarch via Secretary of State. Assured no further territorial annexation, respect for rights/dignity/honour of native princes.
Peel Commission: Recommended reorganization of British Indian Army (increased European proportion, British control of artillery).
Arms Act (1878): Restricted weapon possession by 'unlawful' elements.
VII. Socio-Religious Reform Movements (Consolidated)
Key Figures & Contributions:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Brahmo Samaj (1828), Atmiya Sabha (1814). Opposed Sati, idolatry. Promoted monotheism, modern education. 'Father of Modern India'. Wrote 'Gift to Monotheists' (Persian), 'Samvad Kaumudi', 'Mirat-ul-Akbar'.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati: Arya Samaj (1875). 'Back to the Vedas'. Opposed idolatry, caste. Promoted Shuddhi. Wrote 'Satyarth Prakash'. Proposed Tibet-home theory.
Swami Vivekananda: Ramakrishna Mission (1897). Vedanta, service. Chicago speech (1893).
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Key role in Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Promoted girls' education. Opposed child marriage, polygamy. 'Father of Bengali Prose'.
Jyotirao Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). Anti-caste, women's education pioneer. First girls' school (1848) with wife Savitribai Phule. Wrote 'Gulamgiri'.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Led Depressed Classes movement. Founded Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924), Samata Sainik Dal (1927), Independent Labour Party (1936). Led Mahad Satyagraha (1927), Kalaram Temple Entry Movement (Nasik, 1930). Chairman Drafting Committee. First Law Minister. Bharat Ratna (1990). Associated with Mahar community.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Aligarh Movement. Founded MAO College (1875), Scientific Society (1864). Promoted Western education for Muslims. Wrote 'Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq'. 'Father of two-nation theory'.
Annie Besant: Theosophical Society leader in India. Founded Central Hindu College (1898), Home Rule League (1916). First woman INC President (1917). Newspapers: 'New India', 'Commonweal'. Founded Women's Indian Association (WIA) (1917).
Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Servants of India Society (1905). Moderate leader. Gandhi's political guru. Founded Deccan Sabha. INC President (1905).
Mahadev Govind Ranade (MG Ranade): Prarthana Samaj, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870), Widow Remarriage Association. Co-founder Fergusson College.
Henry Derozio: Young Bengal Movement. Radical thinker.
Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati: Arya Mahila Samaj. Sharada Sadan. Mukti Mission. Pioneer women's education. 'Pandita' title. Wrote 'The High Caste Hindu Woman'.
DK Karve (Maharshi Karve): Founded first Women's University (SNDT, 1916). Widow Remarriage Association (1893). Bharat Ratna.
Kandukuri Veeresalingam: Pioneer of widow remarriage & girls' education in Andhra. 'Father of Telugu Renaissance'.
Sree Narayana Guru: SNDP Yogam (1903). Ezhava upliftment. "One Caste, One Religion, One God".
Guru Ghasidas: Satnami Movement (Chhattisgarh). Anti-caste.
Dadabhai Naoroji: Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (1851). Drain Theory ('Poverty and Un-British Rule in India'). First Asian MP in Britain. Coined term 'Indian National Congress'. INC President (1886, 1893, 1906).
Baba Dayal Das: Founder of Nirankari Movement (emphasized God as Nirankar/Formless).
Vishnushastri Pandit: Founded Vidhava Vivaha Uttejaka Mandal (1866). Widow Remarriage Association (1850s).
Nawab Abdul Latif: Mohammedan Literary Society (Calcutta, 1863). 'Father of Muslim renaissance in Bengal'.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad: Ahmadiyya Movement (1889).
Balshastri Jambhekar: 'Father of Marathi Journalism'. Started 'Darpan' newspaper.
Gopal Hari Deshmukh ('Lokahitawadi'): Social reformer. Wrote for 'Prabhakar'.
Karsondas Mulji: Started 'Satya Prakash' (Gujarati, 1852) for widow remarriage.
Key Organizations & Movements:
Brahmo Samaj (1828): Monotheism, anti-idolatry, reform.
Prarthana Samaj (1867): Monotheism, social reform (Bombay).
Arya Samaj (1875): Vedas, anti-idolatry, Shuddhi.
Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Vedanta, service.
Theosophical Society (1875): Ancient wisdom, brotherhood.
Young Bengal Movement (1820s): Radical thought.
Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Anti-caste, lower caste upliftment.
Paramahansa Mandali (1849): Secret reform group (Bombay).
Servants of India Society (1905): Training national workers.
Singh Sabha Movement (1873): Sikh reform, education.
Akali Movement (1920): Gurdwara reform.
Aligarh Movement (1875): Muslim education, modernization.
Ahmadiyya Movement (1889): Liberal Islam.
Deoband Movement (1866): Islamic revivalism.
Self-Respect Movement (1925): Anti-caste (Tamil Nadu).
SNDP Yogam (1903): Ezhava upliftment (Kerala).
Satnami Movement (19th C): Anti-caste (Chhattisgarh).
Nirankari Movement: Sikh reform (formless God).
Namdhari Movement (Kuka Movement): Sikh reform, political resistance (Founder: Balak Singh, Leader: Satguru Ram Singh).
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (1851): Parsi reform.
Landholders' Society (1838): First political association.
Indian Association (1876): Nationalist political organization.
Fergusson College (1885, Pune): Founders include Tilak, Agarkar, Chiplunkar.
Deccan Education Society (1884): Founders include Tilak, G G Agarkar.
VIII. Indian National Movement - Moderate & Extremist Phases (Consolidated)
Pre-Congress Associations: Landholders' Society (1838), British India Society (1839), Bengal British India Society (1843), British Indian Association (1851), East India Association (1866), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870), Indian Association (1876), Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884), Bombay Presidency Association (1885).
Indian National Congress (INC):
Founded Dec 1885, Bombay, by A.O. Hume. First session attended by 72 delegates.
Presidents (Selected): W.C. Bonnerjee (1885), Dadabhai Naoroji (1886, 1893, 1906), Badruddin Tyabji (1887 - First Muslim), George Yule (1888 - First English), Pherozeshah Mehta (1890), Surendranath Banerjee (1895, 1902), G.K. Gokhale (1905 - Benaras), Annie Besant (1917 - First Woman), Motilal Nehru (1919, 1928), C.R. Das (1922), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1923 - Youngest, Special Session; 1940), Mahatma Gandhi (1924 - Belgaum), Sarojini Naidu (1925 - First Indian Woman), Jawaharlal Nehru (1929, 1936, 1937, etc.), Vallabhbhai Patel (1931 - Karachi), Rajendra Prasad (1934, 1939 after Bose resignation, 1947), Subhas Chandra Bose (1938 - Haripura, 1939 - Tripuri), J.B. Kripalani (1947 at independence).
Key Sessions: 1886 (Calcutta - Naoroji), 1887 (Madras - Tyabji), 1888 (Allahabad - Yule), 1896 (Calcutta - Vande Mataram sung), 1905 (Benaras - Gokhale, Swadeshi call taken up), 1906 (Calcutta - Naoroji, 'Swaraj' goal declared), 1907 (Surat - Split), 1911 (Calcutta - Jana Gana Mana sung), 1912 (Bankipore, Bihar), 1916 (Lucknow - Reunion, Lucknow Pact), 1917 (Calcutta - Besant), 1920 (Calcutta Special & Nagpur Annual - Non-Cooperation resolution), 1922 (Gaya - C.R. Das), 1924 (Belgaum - Gandhi), 1925 (Kanpur - Sarojini Naidu), 1927 (Madras - Boycott Simon Commission, All Parties Conference set up), 1928 (Calcutta - Motilal Nehru), 1929 (Lahore - Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj resolution, Tricolour hoisted), 1931 (Karachi - Patel, Resolution on Fundamental Rights & National Economic Programme, endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact), 1936 (Lucknow), 1937 (Faizpur), 1938 (Haripura - Bose), 1939 (Tripuri - Bose elected defeating Pattabhi Sitaramayya, later resigned), 1940 (Ramgarh - Azad).
Surat Split (1907): Between Moderates and Extremists.
Home Rule Movement (1916): Tilak & Besant.
Lucknow Pact (1916): INC-Muslim League agreement. Moderate-Extremist reunion.
Celebrated first Independence Day on Jan 26, 1930.
Adopted Tricolour flag (saffron, white, green with Charkha) in 1931 (Karachi session). Resolution moved by J. Nehru.
All India Kisan Sabha: Founded at INC Lucknow Session (1936).
IX. Gandhian Era & Freedom Struggle (Consolidated)
Gandhi's Arrival & Early Life: Born Oct 2, 1869 (Porbandar). Went to South Africa (1893). Founded Natal Indian Congress (1894), Indian Opinion newspaper (1903). Returned Jan 9, 1915 (age 46). Political Guru: G.K. Gokhale. Awarded Kaisar-i-Hind (1915, returned 1920).
Early Satyagrahas: Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918), Kheda (1918).
Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) & Jallianwala Bagh.
Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura (1922).
Civil Disobedience Movement:
Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha): March 12 - April 6, 1930 (Sabarmati to Dandi). Protest against salt tax. Sarojini Naidu persuaded Gandhi to allow women. C. Rajagopalachari led Vedaranyam Salt March (Tamil Nadu).
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Suspended CDM temporarily. Gandhi agreed to attend 2nd RTC.
Second Round Table Conference (London, Sept 1931): Gandhi attended as sole INC representative. Failed. CDM resumed.
Movement completely ceased in 1934.
Communal Award (1932) & Poona Pact:
Announced by Ramsay MacDonald. Awarded separate electorates to Depressed Classes.
Gandhi undertook fast unto death.
Poona Pact (Sept 1932): Between Gandhi (signed by Madan Mohan Malaviya) and Ambedkar. Abandoned separate electorates for Depressed Classes; reserved seats increased (71 to 147 provincial, 18% central).
Harijan Sevak Sangh: Founded by Gandhi (1932).
Individual Satyagraha (1940): Protest against India's forced participation in WWII. First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave. Second: Jawaharlal Nehru (arrested Oct 31, 1940).
Quit India Movement (August Movement, 1942):
Resolution passed Aug 8, 1942 (Bombay, Gowalia Tank Maidan).
Gandhi's slogan: "Do or Die".
Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan.
Secret Congress Radio operated (Usha Mehta).
Kushal Konwar: Only martyr hanged during this phase.
Koraput Revolution (Odisha) part of Quit India.
Gandhi's Assassination: Jan 30, 1948.
Other Key Events/People:
Simon Commission (1927-28).
Nehru Report (1928).
Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932): Ambedkar & Tej Bahadur Sapru attended all three.
Cripps Mission (1942): Headed by Sir Stafford Cripps. To secure Indian cooperation in WWII. Proposed Dominion status after war. Rejected ('post-dated cheque').
Cabinet Mission (1946): Members: Pethick Lawrence (Sec. of State), Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander. To discuss transfer of power. Rejected demand for Pakistan. Proposed Constituent Assembly.
Shimla Conference (1945): Called by Lord Wavell to discuss Wavell Plan. Failed.
Bhoodan Movement (1951): Started by Vinoba Bhave (Land Gift Movement).
X. Revolutionaries & Related Activities
Early Phase:
Chapekar Brothers (1897): Assassinated Rand & Ayerst in Pune.
Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society): Secret society founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (V.D. Savarkar) and Ganesh Damodar Savarkar (1904). Believed in armed rebellion. Precursor: Mitra Mela (Nasik, 1899).
Anushilan Samiti: Revolutionary organization (Bengal). Founded by Satish Chandra Bose, P Mitter. Jatindra Mohan Sengupta associated. Khudiram Bose was a member.
Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908): Trial involving Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Kanailal Dutta.
Muzaffarpur Bombing (1908): Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to assassinate Judge Kingsford. Chaki committed suicide, Bose executed (Muzaffarpur Jail).
Madan Lal Dhingra: Assassinated Sir William Curzon Wyllie (London, 1909).
Nasik Conspiracy Case (1909): Assassination of Collector Jackson by Anant Laxman Kanhere (member Abhinav Bharat). Led to V.D. Savarkar's arrest & transportation ('Kala Pani') to Andaman Cellular Jail (1911). Savarkar wrote epic 'Kamala' in jail.
Delhi Conspiracy Case (1912): Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge. Role of Ras Behari Bose.
India House (London, 1905): Founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma. Centre for revolutionaries. Published 'The Indian Sociologist'.
Paris Indian Society (1905): Founded by Madam Bhikaji Cama, S.R. Rana, Godrej. Branch of India House. Cama published 'Vande Mataram'. Hosted precursor Indian flag (Stuttgart, 1907). Cama known as 'Mother of Indian Revolution'.
Ghadar Movement:
Founded as Hindi Association of the Pacific Coast (San Francisco, USA, 1913). Aim: Free India from British rule.
Key Founders: Lala Har Dayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna (President).
Published 'Ghadar' newspaper.
Ghadar Conspiracy (1915): Planned pan-India mutiny during WWI with German help. Kartar Singh Sarabha executed (Lahore, Nov 1915) for his role.
Later Phase:
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): Founded (Kanpur, Oct 1924) by Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee.
Kakori Train Action (Robbery) (Aug 9, 1925): Organized by HRA. Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Nath Lahiri hanged (Dec 1927).
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA): HRA renamed in 1928 (Ferozeshah Kotla, Delhi) under Chandrashekhar Azad leadership. Socialist ideology adopted. Founders include Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Azad.
Saunders Assassination (Lahore, 1928): By Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Azad to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death.
Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (Delhi, April 8, 1929): By Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt against Public Safety Bill & Trade Disputes Bill. Aimed 'to make the deaf hear'. Bhagat Singh quote: "did not wish to glorify the cult of the bomb and pistol but wanted a revolution in society".
Lahore Conspiracy Case (1929): Trial related to Saunders murder. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru hanged (Lahore Jail, March 23, 1931).
Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 18, 1930): Led by Surya Sen ('Master Da'). Founded Indian Republican Army. Key figures: Ardhendu Dastidar, Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Datta.
Chandrashekhar Azad: Died in encounter (Alfred Park, Allahabad, Feb 1931).
Jatin Mukherjee ('Bagha Jatin'): Prominent Bengal revolutionary (Anushilan Samiti). Planned armed uprising (WWII). Died in encounter (1915). Quote: "We shall die to awaken the nation".
Udham Singh: Assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (London, 1940).
Alluri Sitarama Raju: Led Rampa Rebellion (Manyam Rebellion) (1922-24) in Andhra against British forest laws. Helped by Bobbili Dora. Arrested and executed May 1924.
Tirot Sing: Khasi chief, leader of Khasi Uprising (Anglo-Khasi War) (1829-1833) against British.
Rani Gaidinliu: Naga spiritual/political leader. Led Heraka religious movement & revolt against British rule from North East India (Manipur).
Subhas Chandra Bose ('Netaji'): INC President (1938, 1939). Resigned 1939, formed Forward Bloc (1939). Escaped India (1941). Organized Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj (revived 1943, founded by Mohan Singh 1942 in Singapore). Established Provisional Government of Free India (Singapore, 1943). Slogans: "Dilli Chalo", "Jai Hind", "Give me blood, I will give freedom". Called Gandhi 'Father of the Nation' (1944). Women's regiment of INA: Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Autobiography: 'The Indian Struggle'. Political Guru: Chittaranjan Das. Founded 'Tiger Legion'/'Free India Legion' (Germany, 1941).
Ras Behari Bose: Key figure in Ghadar, Delhi Conspiracy, INA formation. Chaired Indian Independence League (1942).
United India House (Seattle, USA, 1910): Set up by Tarak Nath Das and G.D. Kumar.
XI. Peasant & Tribal Movements
Santhal Rebellion (Hul) (1855-56): Led by Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav (brothers) against moneylenders, zamindars, British.
Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroh) (1859, Bengal): Peasants refused to grow indigo under oppressive contracts. Led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Charan Biswas (Nadia district). Depicted in Dinabandhu Mitra's play 'Nil Darpan'.
Deccan Riots (1875, Maharashtra): Against moneylenders (Marwari, Gujarati). Started Supa village (Poona). Farmers destroyed account books, socially boycotted moneylenders. Supported by Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1870s-80s, Bengal): Against zamindari oppression.
Ramosi Uprising (1822-29, Western Ghats): Led by Chittur Singh.
Kol Rebellion (1829-39, Chota Nagpur): Led by Buddhu Bhagat, Madara Mahato, Joa Bhagat.
Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan) (1899-1900, Ranchi): Led by Birsa Munda ('Dharti Aaba'). Against British policies, moneylenders, missionaries. Birsa associated with Munda tribe.
Moplah Rebellion (Malabar Rebellion) (1921, Kerala): Armed uprising by Mappila Muslims against British and Hindu landlords. Part of Khilafat/Non-Cooperation context. Leader: Variyamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji. Wagon Tragedy associated.
Eka Movement (1921-22, Awadh): Against high rents, oppression.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928, Gujarat): Against land revenue hike. Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (earned 'Sardar' title here).
Awadh Peasant Movement: Led by Baba Ramchandra against Talukdars/Landlords. Oudh Kisan Sabha formed (1920).
Tebhaga Movement (1946-47, Bengal): Sharecroppers demanded two-thirds share of produce.
Telangana Movement (1946-51): Against Nizam's rule, feudal oppression.
Koya Rebellion (1879-80, Eastern Godavari): Led by Tomma Sora.
Patharughat Uprising (1894, Assam): Peasants' uprising against tax policies.
XII. Development of Modern Industry & Economy
Textiles:
Decline of Indian textiles in 18th/19th C due to British industrial revolution & high import duties on Indian goods in Britain.
First modern cotton mill: Fort Gloster, near Kolkata (1818). Successful mill: Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company (Mumbai, 1854) by Cowaszee Nanabhoy Davar.
First jute mill: Rishra, near Kolkata (1855) by George Acland.
Calico Act (1720, Britain): Banned use of printed cotton textiles (chintz) from India to protect British mills.
Iron & Steel:
First successful plant: Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), Jamshedpur (1907).
Railways: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie. First line: Bombay to Thane (1853). First South India line (1856).
Drain Theory: Propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji. Argued Britain was draining India's wealth ('Poverty and Un-British Rule in India').
XIII. Education & Press
Education:
Calcutta Madrasa (1781): Founded by Warren Hastings (Arabic, Persian, Islamic law).
Sanskrit College, Varanasi (1791): Founded by Jonathan Duncan (Hindu law, philosophy).
Fort William College (1800, Calcutta): Founded by Lord Wellesley (train civil servants).
Hindu College, Calcutta (1817): Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, David Hare etc. (now Presidency University).
Charter Act 1813: First allocation of funds for education.
Elphinstone College (Bombay, 1835).
Calcutta Medical College (1835).
English Education Act (1835): Based on Macaulay's Minute. Made English the medium of higher education. Aim: Create class of Indians 'Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect'.
Wood's Despatch (1854): By Sir Charles Wood. 'Magna Carta of English Education in India'. Recommended vernacular languages for primary, Anglo-vernacular for secondary, English for higher education. Led to establishment of universities.
Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857): Established under Lord Canning based on Wood's Despatch.
Hunter Commission (1882): Appointed by Lord Ripon to review education development since Wood's Despatch. Focused on primary/secondary education.
MAO College, Aligarh (1875): Founded by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan.
Fergusson College, Pune (1885): Founded by Tilak, Agarkar etc.
Central Hindu College, Benaras (1898): Founded by Annie Besant (later became BHU).
Visva-Bharati (1921, Shantiniketan): Founded by Rabindranath Tagore. Became 'living heritage university'.
SNDT Women's University (1916): Founded by DK Karve. First women's university.
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (1938): Founded by K.M. Munshi to promote education and culture.
Press:
James Augustus Hicky: Started first Indian newspaper 'Bengal Gazette' (1780).
Licensing Regulation (1823): Restricted press.
Lord Metcalfe (1835-36): 'Liberator of Indian Press'.
Press and Registration of Books Act (1867): Regulation.
Vernacular Press Act (1878): Curtailed vernacular press freedom.
Official Secrets Act (1904): Curtailed press freedom.
Newspapers/Journals (Selected): Samvad Kaumudi, Mirat-ul-Akbar (Ram Mohan Roy), Rast Goftar (Naoroji), Indian Mirror (Devendra Nath Tagore), Hindoo Patriot (Madhusudan Ray/Girish Chandra Ghosh), Kesari, Mahratta (Tilak), Young India, Harijan, Indian Opinion (Gandhi), The Indian Sociologist (Shyamji Varma), Vande Mataram (Aurobindo/Bhikaji Cama), Al-Hilal, Al-Balagh (Maulana Azad), Commonweal, New India (Besant), Mooknayak (Ambedkar), Darpan (Balshastri Jambhekar), Prabhakar (Gopal Hari Deshmukh wrote), Satya Prakash (Karsondas Mulji), Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq (Syed Ahmed Khan), Ghadar, Tattvabodhini Patrika (Bengali, Debendranath Tagore).
XIV. Miscellaneous
Nizam of Hyderabad in 1947: Osman Ali Khan.
First Accountant General Office: Established 1858.
First Regular Census: Ordered 1871 (Mayo), Conducted 1872. First synchronous census 1881. Independent India's first census 1951 (literacy rate ~12%).
Gateway of India: Built 1924 to welcome King George V & Queen Mary (visit 1911).
Victoria Memorial Hall (Kolkata): Conceptualized by Curzon, designed by William Emerson. Foundation stone 1906 (Prince of Wales/George V), opened 1921.
India Gate (All-India War Memorial): Designed by Edwin Lutyens. Foundation stone 1921 (Duke of Connaught).
Komagata Maru Incident (1914): Ship carrying Indian immigrants denied entry into Canada. Forced return to Calcutta (Budge Budge), led to violence.
Bhoodan Movement (1951): Land gift movement started by Vinoba Bhave.
All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): Founded 1920, Bombay. First President: Lala Lajpat Rai. First central trade union.
Congress Socialist Party (1934): Founded by Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Ram Manohar Lohia. Socialist caucus within INC.
Bharat Naujawan Sabha (1926, Lahore): Founded by Bhagat Singh (founding secretary). Political work among youth/peasants/workers.
Indian Independence League: Founded by Ras Behari Bose (1942).
Tribes: Santhal (Rajmahal hills, Damin-i-Koh area), Munda (Chota Nagpur), Bhil, Gond, Bhutia, Khasi (Meghalaya), Moplah (Kerala).
Damin-i-Koh: Area demarcated (1832) as land of Santhals.
EIC Army Terms: Sawar (men on horses), Musket (heavy gun used by infantry).
Jhanda Satyagraha (Flag Satyagraha): Held Nagpur (1923).
Karachi Resolution (1931): Outlined vision for independent India's constitution (Fundamental Rights, National Economic Programme).
Directive Principles of State Policy: Origin traced to Karachi Resolution (1931).
National Flag: Adopted by Constituent Assembly July 22, 1947. Designed by Pingali Venkayya. Ratio 3:2. Tricolour (saffron, white, green) with Ashoka Chakra. 1931 INC flag: Tricolour with Charkha. First hoisting abroad: Madame Cama (Stuttgart, 1907). First hoisting in India: Parsee Bagan Square, Kolkata (Aug 7, 1906). Nehru raised flag at Lahori Gate (Red Fort) on Aug 15, 1947.
National Anthem: 'Jana Gana Mana' written by Rabindranath Tagore (Bengali, 1911). Adopted Jan 24, 1950.
Drafting Committee (Constitution): Chairman: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. Published first draft Feb 1948.
Akhil Bhartiya Kalidas Samman Samaroh: Annual festival in Ujjain since 1958. Inaugurated by Rajendra Prasad.
Muslim League: Founded 1906, Dhaka. Founders: Aga Khan III, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka, Waqar-ul-Mulk. Supported Partition of Bengal, separate electorates. Lucknow Pact (1916). Lahore Resolution (1940) demanded "Independent States" for Muslims. Observed Direct Action Day (Aug 16, 1946).
Social Service League (1911, Bombay): Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi (N.M. Joshi), founder of AITUC.
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