British Annexation of India: Policies and Methods
The British consolidated their power and expanded their territory in India primarily through two methods:
Muscle Power (War): Direct military conquest through various wars (e.g., Anglo-Mysore Wars, Anglo-Maratha Wars, Anglo-Sikh Wars, Battle of Plassey, Battle of Buxar). This approach was costly and often faced significant resistance. (This is mentioned briefly in the transcript as context but the focus is on the second method).
Mind Power (Policy): Subtle but effective policies designed to weaken Indian states internally and externally, making eventual annexation easier. This was often preferred as it was less costly and appeared less aggressive initially.
Key Annexation Policies (Mind Power)
The British employed several key policies under the 'Mind Power' strategy:
A. Ring Fence Policy
Architect: Primarily associated with Warren Hastings.
Concept: Creating 'buffer zones' or friendly states around the Company's territories to protect them from direct attack. The defence of these buffer states' borders was considered vital for defending the Company's own borders.
Mechanism: The Company would defend the neighbouring state's borders on the condition that the ruler of that state bore the expenses of the defending army. It was primarily a defensive policy aimed at protecting Company interests.
B. Subsidiary Alliance
Origin: The concept was arguably first used by the French Governor Dupleix and later by Robert Clive (e.g., with Awadh after the Battle of Buxar, 1764).
Formalization & Expansion: Systematically developed and widely implemented by Lord Wellesley (Governor-General 1798-1805), starting in 1798. Wellesley's aim was aggressive expansion ('anexation').
Core Conditions (Terms of the Treaty):
British Army Stationed: The Indian ruler had to accept the stationing of a permanent British force (a 'subsidiary' force) within their territory.
Maintenance Payment: The ruler had to pay for the maintenance of this British force. Payment could be in cash (money) or, more often demanded, by ceding territory (place) permanently to the British. Failure to pay often led to territory annexation.
Example: The Nizam of Hyderabad ceded the 'Ceded Districts' (Ballari, Kadapa, Karnool, Anantapur) for this purpose.
British Resident: A British Resident (representative of the Governor-General) would be posted at the ruler's court. While ostensibly an advisor, the Resident often interfered heavily in internal administration.
Loss of Foreign Affairs Autonomy: The Indian ruler could not engage in foreign relations (war, alliances, negotiations) with any other power (Indian or European) without British permission. They could not employ any other Europeans in their service without British approval (specifically targeting the French).
Non-interference (Nominal): The British promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of the state (though this was often violated via the Resident).
Protection: In return, the British would protect the state from external aggression and internal revolt.
Consequences for Indian States:
Loss of Sovereignty: Rulers lost control over defence and foreign policy, becoming dependent on the British.
Disbandment of Own Army: Rulers were forced to disband their own armies ('Own Army X'), leading to unemployment and loss of military capability.
Financial Burden: The subsidy payments were very high, draining the state's resources and often leading to increased taxation ('Tax Burden') on the populace.
Internal Interference: The British Resident wielded significant influence, often undermining the ruler's authority.
Isolation: States were prevented from forming alliances ('Neighbour Friendship' lost), weakening collective resistance.
Loss of Skilled Personnel: Prohibition of other Europeans led to loss of access to diverse military/administrative expertise ('Intelligent'/Employment loss).
Demoralization & Administrative Neglect: Protected by the British, rulers often became complacent and neglected administration, providing pretexts for later British intervention or annexation (e.g., Awadh).
States Accepting Subsidiary Alliance (Order & Year): (Mnemonic: HMPASSH)
Hyderabad (H): 1798 (Nizam Ali Khan - First state to sign).
Mysore (M) / Tanjore: 1799 (After the defeat of Tipu Sultan).
Peshwa (P) (Maratha): 1802 (Treaty of Bassein).
Awadh (A): 1801 (Initially signed with Clive in 1765, renewed/expanded by Wellesley).
Scindia (S) (Maratha): 1803.
Surat (S): Year not specified but falls in sequence.
Holkar (H) (Maratha): Last major power to accept.
C. Doctrine of Lapse
Architect: Lord Dalhousie (Governor-General 1848-1856).
Concept: If the ruler of a dependent state (one previously under British influence, often via Subsidiary Alliance) died without a natural male heir, the state would 'lapse', i.e., be annexed by the British. The British denied the ruler's traditional right to adopt an heir for succession purposes.
Annexed States (Key Examples & Years):
Satara (1848)
Jaitpur & Sambalpur (1849)
Baghat (1850)
Udaipur (1852)
Jhansi (1854)
Nagpur (1854)
Awadh (1856 - Annexed on the pretext of misgovernance, though Doctrine of Lapse was also a background factor).
Resistance: Rani Chennamma of Kittur led an early armed rebellion against its implementation in 1824.
Abolition: The policy was a major cause of the 1857 Revolt and was formally withdrawn by Lord Canning following the transfer of power to the Crown.
Related British Administrative Context
Governors-General: The position evolved from Governor of Bengal -> Governor-General of Bengal (Regulating Act 1773) -> Governor-General of India (Charter Act 1833) -> Viceroy (Govt. of India Act 1858). Key figures like Hastings, Cornwallis, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning played crucial roles in shaping these policies and administration.
Acts Shaping Governance: The Regulating Act, Pitt's India Act, various Charter Acts, and the Govt. of India Act 1858 progressively increased British control, defined administrative structures (like the Supreme Court, Board of Control, Secretary of State), and codified laws (like the Indian Penal Code).
Ilbert Bill (1883): Introduced under Lord Ripon, aimed to remove racial discrimination in the judicial system by allowing senior Indian magistrates to preside over cases involving Europeans. It faced intense opposition from the European community in India and was significantly watered down, demonstrating the deep-seated racial prejudices of the era. This event highlighted the limits of reform under British rule.
These policies, especially Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse, were instrumental in the gradual erosion of Indian states' sovereignty and the expansion of the British Empire in India, ultimately contributing significantly to the discontent leading to the Revolt of 1857.
Main Topics:
Annexation of Indian States:
Methods: Muscle Power (Wars) vs. Mind Power (Policies).
Mind Power Policies discussed: Subsidiary Alliance (previous class), Doctrine of Lapse (current focus).
Doctrine of Lapse (రాజ్య సంక్రమణ సిద్ధాంతము):
Introduced by: Lord Dalhousie.
Nature: A "Mind Power" policy for annexation.
Meaning of Lapse (రద్దు): Cancellation/Abolition of State, Titles, and Pension.
Condition for Application: Indian ruler dies without a natural male heir (సహజ వారసుడు).
Adoption (దత్తత) was NOT recognized for succession under this policy.
States Annexed (Prelims Focus):
Satara (First)
Sambalpur
Udaipur (Later returned - marked with *)
Nagpur
Jhansi
(Possibly Bhagat & Jaitpur - mentioned as sometimes included in other books, but not emphasized here/in NCERT).
Awadh (Oudh) Exception:
Annexed in 1856 (Dalhousie's last annexation).
Reason: Misgovernment (దుష్పరిపాలన), not Doctrine of Lapse.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah exiled to Calcutta.
This annexation angered Muslims.
Dalhousie's Reforms (Crucial for Mains):
Debate: Can Dalhousie be called "Maker / Father / Founder of Modern India"? (Appeared in Civil Services Mains multiple times, including 2013). Answer requires weighing positive reforms against negative impacts (annexations, exploitation).
A. Administrative Reforms:
Separated Civil Works from Military.
Established Public Works Department (PWD).
Built Roorkee Engineering College (first in India).
Constructed Grand Trunk Road (G.T. Road).
Dug Ganga Canal (1854).
Made Simla the Military Headquarters (H.Q.).
Started Gurkha system/regiment.
B. Railway Reforms:
1853: First passenger train: Bombay to Thane (34 km).
British Motives: Easy movement of troops ( సైన్యం తరలింపు); Transport of raw materials (ముడి సరుకు - e.g., Cotton) to ports for England; Transport of finished goods (బట్టలు) from England to Indian markets.
Impact on India: Positive - Connected North & South India, aided growth of Nationalism ( జాతీయవాదం). Negative - Devastated Indian handloom industry ( చేనేత పరిశ్రమ); Economic drain.
Quotes mentioned: Karl Marx, Robinson (related to cotton).
C. Communication Reforms:
1853: Electric Telegraph system started. First line: Calcutta to Agra. (Helped suppress the 1857 revolt).
1854: Postal Department established; First Postal Stamp released (in Karachi).
D. Educational Reforms:
1854: Woods Despatch (Introduced by Charles Wood, implemented by Dalhousie).
Called Magna Carta of Indian Education.
Introduced Three-tier structure:
Primary: Vernacular/Regional/Native language (ప్రాంతీయ భాష).
School: Vernacular + English (V+E).
University: English only.
Established Universities in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857) based on the London University model.
Promoted Private Schools with Government Aid.
Encouraged Women's Education (Bethune College founded by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar; Kadambini Ganguly - first woman graduate).
E. Civil Services Reforms:
Abolished Nomination system by the East India Company.
Introduced Open Competition (Merit-based).
Issues for Indians: Exams held only in London (Money problem); Religious objections to crossing the sea (समुद्र యానం).
First Indian to pass: Satyendranath Tagore. Others mentioned: S. Banerji, RC Dutt, Subhas Chandra Bose.
F. Social Reforms:
Widow Remarriage Act (1856): Drafted by Dalhousie (due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's efforts), passed by the next Governor-General, Lord Canning.
Religious Disabilities Act (1850): Removed disqualification from inheriting property due to change of religion (seen as favouring Christian converts).
Anti-Sati Act (1829): Passed by William Bentinck (previous Governor-General), with Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts.
Sati Context: Speaker argues Sati was not Vedic, not in Ramayana/Mahabharata (except Madri's case - attributed to guilt, not Sati custom). First evidence in Eran inscription (Gupta period). Became more common (as Jauhar, especially among Rajputs) during Muslim invasions, possibly to protect honour/property. British exaggerated its prevalence to portray Hinduism negatively and encourage conversion. Last recorded Sati: Roop Kanwar (1987).
Overall Structure of Modern Indian History (as outlined by speaker):
Arrival of Europeans
British Ascendancy (Muscle & Mind Power Annexations - current topic)
British Policies (Economic, Social, Educational etc.)
Revolt of 1857
Post-1857 to 1947 (National Movement, Independence, Partition)
Key People Mentioned:
Lord Dalhousie
Lord Wellesley
Lord Canning
William Bentinck
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Wajid Ali Shah (Nawab of Awadh)
Nana Saheb (Adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II)
Lakshmibai (Rani of Jhansi, original name Manikarnika)
Charles Wood
Kadambini Ganguly
Satyendranath Tagore
Surendranath Banerji
RC Dutt
Subhas Chandra Bose
Karl Marx
Robinson
James Hickey (Bengal Gazette - mentioned implicitly)
Akbar II (Mughal Emperor)
Roop Kanwar
Topic Started: Causes of 1857 Revolt (1857 తిరుగుబాటు కారణాలు)
Political Causes (రాజకీయ కారణాలు):
Annexation policies:
Subsidiary Alliance (SA) - Wellesley (Code: HMPASS mentioned for states annexed)
Doctrine of Lapse (DL) - Dalhousie (Code: SJ Sub Ja)
Annexation based on Misrule/Mal-administration - Example: Awadh (అవధ్) in 1856 (Last annexation by British). Significance: Many sepoys in the British army were from Awadh.
Abolition of Titles and Pensions:
Nana Saheb (Adopted son of last Peshwa Baji Rao II) - Pension denied.
Jhansi Lakshmi Bai - Adopted son not recognized as heir.
Revocation of royal allowances (రాజభరణాలు రద్దు).
Administrative Causes (పరిపాలన కారణాలు):
No higher posts for Indians in administration.
ICS (Indian Civil Service) exam held only in London, making it difficult and expensive for Indians.
Racism (జాతి వివక్షత): Indians treated as inferior ("Nalloda", "Ae Panday"). Signs like "Dogs and Indians not allowed".
Corruption (లంచగొండితనం) prevalent at lower administrative levels (police, clerks).
Social Causes (సాంఘిక కారణాలు): British interference in Indian social and religious customs.
Anti-Sati Act (1829) - William Bentinck (with Raja Ram Mohan Roy's effort). Note: Speaker mentions Sati was rare, mainly among Rajputs in North India, and linked to invasions. Eran inscription (Gupta period) as first evidence.
Widow Remarriage Act (1856) - Dalhousie (with Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's effort). Mentioned Bethune College (first women's college) and Kadambini Ganguly (first female graduate).
Infanticide Prohibition (శిశు హత్యలు) Act (1802).
Religious Causes (మతపరమైన కారణాలు):
Charter Act of 1813 allowed Christian Missionaries entry, leading to aggressive conversion activities.
Religious Disabilities Act (1850): Allowed converts (Hindu to Christian) to inherit ancestral property (previously forfeited). Seen as incentivizing conversion, particularly targeting Dalits/SCs.
Military Related:
Vellore Mutiny (1806): Restrictions on wearing religious marks (tilak/bottu) and beard.
Barrackpore Mutiny (1824): Sepoys refused to cross the sea (సముద్ర ప్రయాణం) for the Burma war, fearing loss of caste.
Economic Causes (ఆర్థిక కారణాలు):
Drain of Wealth: India's wealth transferred to Britain (Dadabhai Naoroji's theory, "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" book). Sullivan's "sponge" analogy (Ganges to Thames).
Destruction of Traditional Economy: Especially Handlooms (చేనేత). British machine-made goods flooded Indian markets. Raw materials (Cotton) exported, finished goods (Clothes) imported back. Quotes: Robinson's comment on Indian cotton; William Bentinck's comment on weavers' bones whitening the plains.
Revenue Policies: Exploitative land revenue systems.
Zamindari (Permanent Settlement)
Ryotwari
Mahalwari
(Detailed discussion planned for a later class). High tax rates (55-60% in Ryotwari) impoverished farmers. Zamindars also lost land if unable to pay taxes.
Military Causes (సైనిక కారణాలు):
Discrimination: British soldiers ("Soldiers") vs Indian soldiers ("Sepoys").
Ratio: 1 British soldier for every 6 Indian sepoys (1:6).
Low Salary & No Promotions: Highest rank for an Indian was Subedar.
Lack of Respect & Racism: Derogatory terms used.
Karl Marx quote mentioned: Indian army, maintained at Indian expense, was used to suppress Indians.
Religious sentiments hurt (linked to Religious causes - Vellore, Barrackpore).
Immediate Cause (తక్షణ కారణం):
The Rumour: Introduction of the new Enfield Rifle, whose cartridges were rumoured to be greased with cow fat and pig fat.
Mechanism: Cartridges had to be bitten open before loading.
Religious Offense: Cow fat -> Hindus; Pig fat -> Muslims.
Origin/Spread: Rumour started at Woolwich arsenal (UK factory). First surfaced in India at Berhampur (Feb 1857), soldiers refused but suppressed.
Barrackpore Incident (March 1857):
Matadin Bhangi (Kalasi - lower caste worker) taunts Mangal Pandey (Brahmin sepoy, 34th Regiment) about caste after being denied water. Reveals the rumour about greased cartridges.
Mangal Pandey attacks Lt. Bagh and Sgt. Major Hewson (or Horse?).
Fellow sepoy Ishwar Pandey refuses to arrest Mangal Pandey.
Both Mangal Pandey and Ishwar Pandey are executed (hanged).
Meerut Incident (May 9-10, 1857):
90 sepoys refuse the cartridges.
85 are imprisoned for 10 years (May 9).
Women in the market taunt the remaining soldiers.
Soldiers revolt (May 10), attack British, free the 85 prisoners.
March to Delhi begins ("Delhi Chalo").
Delhi (May 11, 1857):
Sepoys reach Red Fort (ఎర్ర కోట).
Proclaim the aged, reluctant Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II as their leader and Emperor of India (Shahenshah-e-Hindustan).
Bahadur Shah II sends letters via Hasan Askari to other rulers seeking support.
Further Points:
The speaker mentions specific dates like May 9th, May 10th.
Emphasizes the role of caste (Mangal Pandey vs Matadin Bhangi) as an indirect factor in sparking the immediate incident.
Highlights the significance of Meerut (May 10th) as the official start date of the widespread revolt.
Notes the symbolic importance of Bahadur Shah II, despite his weakness, as a unifying figure chosen by the sepoys.
Topic: 1857 Revolt - Part II (Honey GS Classes)
Recap of Part I:
Part I covered the Reasons for the 1857 Revolt:
Political
Social
Religious
Economic
Military
Immediate Cause (Greased Cartridges)
Topics Covered in Part II:
Centers of the Revolt & Leadership (Spread of the Revolt)
British Officials who Suppressed the Revolt in different centers.
Reasons for the Failure of the 1857 Revolt.
Nature and Impact of the Revolt (To be covered in the next video).
1. Centers, Leaders, and Suppression:
| Center (Place) | Indian Leader(s) | Real Name / Details | British Suppression Official(s) | Notes / Mnemonics |
| Delhi | Bahadur Shah II (Nominal) | Last Mughal Emperor, declared "Shahenshah-e-Hindustan", reluctant leader, exiled to Rangoon (died 1862), poet name 'Jafar'. | Nikolson (killed), Hadson | Hindu sepoys chose Muslim emperor -> Hindu-Muslim Unity. Bahadur Shah banned cow slaughter. Mnemonic: Delhi lo bhaktulu hadalettistaru. |
| Bakht Khan (Military/Actual) | Led on behalf of Bahadur Shah II. | Killed Nikolson. | ||
| UP - Kanpur | Nana Saheb | Adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, Dhondu Pant. Pension stopped. Fled to Nepal. | Campbell | Mnemonic: Camp lo kaanpu ayinaka Nana kaasta Tata ayyadu. |
| Tantia Tope | Helped Nana Saheb. Ramchandra Panduranga. Fought guerrilla warfare. Betrayed by Man Singh, hanged. | |||
| UP - Lucknow | Begum Hazrat Mahal | Wife of deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Fought for son Birjis Qadr. Fled to Nepal. | Campbell | Mnemonic: Lucky unte Begum vastadi / Hazaar rupees lucky unte vastayi. Capital of Awadh, annexed for 'misgovernance'. |
| UP - Allahabad | Liakat Ali Khan | - | Campbell | Mnemonic: Allahabad - Ali. |
| UP - Roy Bareli | Bahadur Khan | - | Campbell | Mnemonic: Rally bahu dooram lo unnadi. |
| Bihar (Arrah / Jagadishpur) | Kunwar Singh | Old Zamindar (~80 yrs), "Bihar Kesari". Lost Zamindari. Died fighting. | William Taylor | Mnemonic: Tellavarangane Kunuku teestamu Arra meeda. |
| Jhansi | Lakshmi Bai | Manikarnika. Adoption of son Damodar Rao rejected (Doctrine of Lapse). | Hugh Rose | Mnemonic: Lakshmi ki Gulabi puvvu ichcharu. Hugh Rose called her "best and bravest military leader", fought "like a man". Death controversy (Jhalkaribai). |
| Gwalior | Lakshmi Bai + Tantia Tope | Fought together here. | Hugh Rose | Defeated due to betrayal by Scindia ruler of Gwalior. Mnemonic: Gaaliki Gulabi puvvu kottukupoyindi. |
| UP - Baraut (Local) | Shah Mal | Local leader. | (Likely Campbell) | NCERT Point. Mnemonic: Shopping mall lo Bharath vasthe vellinam. |
| Jharkhand (Chotanagpur - Singhbhum) (Local) | Gonoo | Kol Tribal Leader. | (Not mentioned) | NCERT Point. Mnemonic: Link to cricketer Goni (CSK/Dhoni). Singhbhum famous for minerals (Ruhr of India). |
| UP - Faizabad (Local) | Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah | Gave call for Jihad. Title: "Danka Shah". Betrayed by Jagannath for reward. | (Likely Campbell) | NCERT Point. Civil Services Prelims question on "Danka Shah". |
2. Reasons for the Failure of the 1857 Revolt:
Limited Area: Mainly confined to North & Central India (esp. Delhi, UP); did not spread across the entire nation.
Lack of Widespread Participation / Indian Support for British:
Many sections did not participate or actively helped the British.
Sikhs & Gurkhas: Remained loyal to the British, helped suppress the revolt (due to historical enmity with Mughals). Punjab region largely stayed out.
Educated Middle Class: Often saw British rule as modernizing (social reforms like Sati abolition, Widow Remarriage) and did not support the 'backward-looking' revolt.
Merchants & Moneylenders: Sided with the British for stability and business interests.
Princely States: Many rulers (e.g., Scindia of Gwalior, Nizam of Hyderabad - Afzal-ud-Daulah) remained loyal and aided the British. Nizam received the "Star of India" title for loyalty.
Lack of Effective/Unified Leadership: No single strong leader accepted by all. Bahadur Shah II was old, reluctant, and symbolic. Leaders had personal/local goals.
Lack of Resources & Equipment: Indians had traditional, often inferior weapons (like long muskets) compared to modern British weapons (Enfield Rifles). Lack of funds and supplies.
British Superiority:
Better Weapons & Military Organization.
Superior Leadership & Training (Campbell, Hudson, Rose, Taylor etc.).
Advanced Transport (Railways) & Communication (Telegraph) allowed quick movement of troops and information.
Lack of Common Ideology/Plan: Rebels fought for different, often personal reasons (pension, annexation, religion, land rights) rather than a unified vision of a free India. No clear plan for post-British rule.
I. Nature of the 1857 Revolt (Interpretations by Historians)
Different individuals and historians have characterized the revolt in various ways:
Sepoy Mutiny:
Proponents: Malleson, Lawrence (British Historians).
Meaning: An act of disobedience limited to the army (sepoys disobeying higher officers).
Purpose: To downplay the revolt's significance and scope.
First War of Independence:
Proponents: V.D. Savarkar (Indian nationalist), Karl Marx (International perspective).
Reasoning: Participation extended beyond sepoys to civilians, kings, zamindars, artisans, farmers, etc. Though their individual reasons varied, the common enemy was the British, aiming to drive them out.
Book: V.D. Savarkar wrote "The First War of Indian Independence".
Feudal Reaction:
Proponent: Jawaharlal Nehru (in his book "Discovery of India").
Reasoning: Primarily seen as a reaction by displaced feudal lords (landowners, kings) who lost power, inciting others rather than a fully formed national movement for independence.
Conflict between Civilisation vs Barbarism:
Proponent: Holmes (British official).
Reasoning: A racist interpretation portraying the British (seen as civilized whites) fighting against Indians (seen as uncivilized/barbarian blacks).
Overall Assessment (Speaker's/General View):
It was "Much more than a Sepoy Mutiny" because large sections of the civilian population participated.
It was "Less than the First War of Independence" because a unified concept of 'India' or national independence was not fully developed. Many fought for regional/personal interests. If successful, it might have led to fragmented rule by local leaders rather than a united India.
II. Impact of the 1857 Revolt (Very Important)
A. Administrative Changes:
Government of India Act, 1858 (Passed Aug 1858):
Ended the rule of the English East India Company (EIC) (Rule lasted 1773-1858).
Power transferred directly to the British Crown (Queen Victoria) – Beginning of Crown Rule / British Raj.
Abolition of Dual Government:
The system established by Pitt's India Act (1784) was scrapped.
Both the Court of Directors (COD - Commercial) and Board of Control (BOC - Political) were abolished.
Creation of Secretary of State for India (SOS):
A new cabinet post in the British Government.
Member of the British Parliament (MP).
Responsible to the British Parliament.
Assisted by a 15-member Advisory Board (India Council).
This combined office was known as the "India House".
First Secretary of State: Lord Stanley (Last President of the Board of Control).
Change in Governor-General's Title:
The post of Governor-General of India was redesignated.
The same person now held two titles:
Governor-General of India: When administering British India (directly annexed territories). Represented the British Parliament.
Viceroy: When dealing with Princely States (native states). Represented the British Crown (King/Queen).
First Viceroy: Lord Canning (Also the last Governor-General of India under the EIC). (Mnemonic: Queen thought "Who CAN be 1st Viceroy?" -> "I CAN" -> Canning)
(Related Historical Titles for Context):
First Governor of Bengal: Robert Clive (Not GG).
First Governor-General of Bengal: Warren Hastings (Regulating Act, 1773). (Mnemonic: Regulating Act -> Madras/Bombay HATE Hastings -> Hastings)
First Governor-General of India: Lord William Bentinck (Charter Act, 1833). (Mnemonic: All India had to BEND -> Bentinck)
B. Changes in British Policy:
End of Annexation:
"No More Annexation" policy adopted.
Policies like the Doctrine of Lapse (associated with Dalhousie) were abolished (by Canning).
Reason: To appease Princely States, who acted as "Breakwaters in the Storm" (quote by Canning) by supporting the British during the revolt (e.g., Nizam, Scindia).
Non-Interference in Socio-Religious Matters:
British decided to stop interfering in Indian religious customs, traditions, and social practices.
Reason: Past interference (Sati abolition, Widow Remarriage, greased cartridges) was seen as a major cause of the revolt.
Doctrine of Lapse Cancelled: Natural heirs not being available, adopted sons allowed.
Divide and Rule Policy:
The 1857 revolt showed significant Hindu-Muslim unity (sepoys, people, leaders like Bahadur Shah Zafar).
British decided to break this unity to prevent future challenges.
Implemented by fostering divisions, initially suspecting Muslims more, later favouring them against rising Hindu nationalism.
Figures like Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, and M.A. Jinnah became prominent in this context, though their stances evolved.
Communalism was fueled significantly by electoral politics introduced later.
Army Reorganisation:
Ratio: Increased proportion of European soldiers.
Bengal Army: 1 European : 2 Indians (Previously higher Indian ratio, e.g., 1:6).
Madras & Bombay Army: 1 European : 3 Indians. (NCERT variations exist, e.g., 2:5).
Recruitment: Shift towards "Martial Races" (Gurkhas, Sikhs, Pathans) who were loyal; reduced recruitment from rebellious areas (Awadh, Bihar).
Control: Key positions and artillery kept exclusively in European hands.
Structure: Regiments organized based on caste/community/region to prevent unity among Indian soldiers.
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