Indus Valley Civilization: Theory Notes

 Indus Valley Civilization: Theory Notes

**Nomenclature and Time Period:**

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is recognized as one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world. It is considered a Bronze Age civilization, flourishing primarily from around 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE (Mature Harappan period roughly 2550 BCE to 1900 BCE).  Some historians suggest earlier dates, extending back to 3250 BCE.

**Geographical Extent and Key Sites:**

The IVC was centered around the Indus River and its tributaries, but its influence and settlements extended widely. Major sites are located in present-day Pakistan and Northwest India, including parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab. Key sites include:

*   **Harappa:** Located in Punjab, Pakistan, it was the first site discovered and gives the civilization its alternate name.
*   **Mohenjo-daro:** Situated in Sindh, Pakistan, known for its "Great Bath" and sophisticated urban planning. It literally means "Mound of the Dead".
*   **Dholavira:** Located in Gujarat, India, renowned for its advanced water management systems, including reservoirs and canals. Recently recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
*   **Lothal:** Also in Gujarat, near sources of carnelian, it was a significant port city and trade center.
*   **Kalibangan:** In Rajasthan, India, known for its fire altars and evidence of ploughed fields.
*   **Rakhigarhi:** In Haryana, India, one of the largest IVC sites.
*   **Surkotada:** In Gujarat, India, where evidence of horse bones has been found.
*   **Balakot & Nageshwar:** Coastal settlements used for shell procurement and craft production, located in Pakistan and Gujarat respectively.
*   **Chanhudaro:** In Sindh, Pakistan, a city almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead making, seal making, metalworking, and shell cutting.
*   **Manda:** In Jammu and Kashmir, the northernmost known IVC site, not associated with major craft production.
*   **Hastinapura:** Situated in Meerut district, while not an IVC site, excavations revealed later period settlements and flood events around 800 BCE, demonstrating the dynamic river systems of the region.

**Archaeological Discoveries and Excavations:**

*   **Harappa (1921):** First excavated site, led by Daya Ram Sahni.
*   **Mohenjo-daro (1922):** Excavated by R.D. Banerjee, revealing the Great Bath and Pashupati seal.
*   **Dholavira (1967-68):** Discovered by Jagat Pati Joshi, highlighting advanced water management.
*   **Surkotada (1964):** Discovered by J.P. Joshi, providing evidence of horse bones.
*   **Hastinapura (1951-52):** Excavated by B.B. Lal, revealing later period settlements and flood evidence.

**Urban Planning and Architecture:**

The IVC is characterized by remarkable urban planning and sophisticated architecture:

*   **Grid System:** Cities were planned with a grid pattern of streets.
*   **Burnt Brick Construction:**  Buildings were primarily constructed using burnt bricks in a standardized ratio of 4:2:1.
*   **Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro):** A large, rectangular structure, possibly used for ritual bathing.
*   **Water Management:** Advanced systems including wells, drains, and reservoirs (especially evident in Dholavira).

**Craft Production and Trade:**

The IVC economy was supported by extensive craft production and trade networks:

*   **Craft Centers:** Chanhudaro was a major center for specialized crafts.
*   **Materials Sourcing:** Harappans procured raw materials from various regions, including shells (Nageshwar, Balakot), lapis lazuli (Shortughai in Afghanistan), carnelian (Gujarat), and steatite (Rajasthan).
*   **Seals:** Standard Harappan seals were square-shaped (2x2 dimension), made of steatite, and used for commercial purposes. They often depicted animals like bulls, elephants, and rhinoceroses, and sometimes the Pashupati figure.
*   **Specialized Crafts:** Bead making, shell cutting, metalworking, and weight making were highly developed.
*   **Trade with Mesopotamia:** IVC seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Umma and Ur, indicating trade relations.

**Key Artifacts and Discoveries:**

*   **Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro):** A monumental public bath structure.
*   **Pashupati Seal (Mohenjo-daro):** Depicts a seated figure, possibly an early form of Shiva.
*   **Bronze Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro):** A significant bronze sculpture indicating artistic skill.
*   **Bearded Man Statue (Mohenjo-daro):** A steatite statue, possibly of a priest or ruler.
*   **Woven Cotton (Mohenjo-daro):** Evidence of cotton textile production.
*   **Horse Bone Evidence (Surkotada):** Suggests the presence of horses, although their role in IVC society is debated.
*   **Dancer's Torso (Harappa):** A limestone torso of a male dancer.

**Religion and Society:**

*   **Pashupati Seal:** Suggests the worship of a proto-Shiva deity.
*   **Earth Goddess Worship:**  Evidenced by terracotta figurines, indicating reverence for fertility.
*   **Swastika and Trimukhi Man:**  Motifs found on seals, possibly with religious significance.
*   **No Vishnu Worship:**  Vishnu is not prominently featured in Harappan religious iconography.

**Decline:**

The IVC declined around 1900 BCE. Theories for the decline include:

*   **Environmental Factors:**  River floods (evidence at Hastinapura and generally), climate change, and drought.
*   **Shifting River Courses:** Changes in the Indus river system.

**UNESCO World Heritage Recognition:**

Several IVC sites are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Dholavira, signifying their global cultural importance. Bhimbetka rock shelters, while pre-IVC, are also a UNESCO site in the same geographical region, representing a long history of human habitation.

**Note on Wheel Invention:**

While not directly part of IVC Q&A, the wooden wheel's invention in Mesopotamia (Sumerian civilization around 3500 BC) provides context for technological developments in early civilizations contemporaneous to the IVC.

This concludes the theory notes for the Indus Valley Civilization, covering all key points and contexts from the provided Q&A.