History Notes from Pinnacle Document
Ancient History
Pala Dynasty:
Founder: Gopala
Capital: Muddagiri / Munger (Bihar)
Mukteshwara Temple:
Location: Odisha (Bhubaneswar)
Dedicated to: Shiva
Century: 10th
Other Ancient Temples:
Virupaksha Temple: Hampi (Built by Lakkan Dandesha under Deva Raya II)
Ellora Kailashanatha Temple: Ellora (Built by Krishna I of Rashtrakuta)
Sun Temple Konark: Konark (Built by Eastern Ganga King Narsimhadeva-1)
Kakatiya Dynasty:
Ruler: Queen Rudramadevi belonged to this dynasty.
Mentioned by: Marco Polo
First Independent Ruler: Rudradeva I
Capital: Orugallu (now Warangal)
Annexation: Defeated by Prince Jaunakhan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) in 1323. Last ruler Prataparudra Deva was defeated.
Water Harvesting Systems:
Sringaverapura (near Allahabad, UP): Channelled Ganga floodwater (1st century BC).
Dholavira (Harappan Civilization): Sophisticated water management.
Bhopal Lake: Built by Paramara Raja Bhoj (11th century).
Hauz Khas Tank (Delhi): Built by Iltutmish (14th century) to supply water to Siri Fort.
Ningthouja Dynasty:
Ruled: Manipur
Founder: King Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (33 CE)
Structure: 125 extended families.
Elephanta Caves:
Location: Elephanta Island (Gharapuri), Mumbai Harbour
Predominantly Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
Builders: Rashtrakuta rulers
Number of Caves: ~34
Status: UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987)
Temple Architecture (South India):
Gopuram: Monumental, ornate entrance tower, especially in Southern India (Dravidian style). Topped by a Kalasam (bulbous stone finial).
Example: Shiva Temple, Chidambaram (Nataraja temple).
Vaisheshika Philosophy:
Basic Text Author: Kanada (Wrote Vaisheshika Sutra)
Nature: Ancient Sanskrit text, foundation of Vaisheshika school.
Classification: One of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (Darshanas).
Gahadavala Dynasty:
Founder: Yashovigraha
First Three Rulers: Yashovigraha, Mahichandra, Chandradeva
Location of Records: Majority discovered in Uttar Pradesh.
Ajanta Caves:
Painting 'Padmapani Bodhisattva': Found in Ajanta Cave No. 1.
Painting 'Vajrapani': Also found in Ajanta Cave No. 1.
Cave 1 Construction: Built in the second phase under King Harisena (Vakataka dynasty).
Ancient Kerala Kingdoms:
Kolathunadu: Between Perumba and Putupattanam rivers.
Valluvanad: Between Meenachil and Pamban rivers (Founder: Ilayi Raja).
Thekkumkoor: Between Nila river and Panthaloor Hills.
Chahamana Dynasty (Chauhans):
Best-known ruler: Prithviraj III (1168-1192).
Defeated Muhammad Ghori in First Battle of Tarain (1191).
Defeated by Ghori in Second Battle of Tarain (1192).
Other Rulers: Vigraharaja II (971-998), Prithviraj I (1090-1110).
Founder of Kanva Dynasty (mentioned in context?): Vasudeva (73 BCE - 28 BCE). (Note: Document seems to incorrectly link Vasudeva Kanva here, likely a typo.)
Tomara Dynasty:
Founder of Delhi: Ananga Pala Tomar (1052 AD). Confirmed by Vikram Samvat 1383 inscription. Ruled Delhi before Prithviraj Chauhan.
Medieval History
1. Foreign Invasions
Muhammad Ghori (Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad):
Sultan of the Ghurid Empire.
Battle of Tarain (First - 1191): Defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.
Battle of Tarain (Second - 1192): Defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.
Battle of Chandawar (1194): Defeated Jayachandra of Gahadavala dynasty.
Battle of Anhilwara (1178): Defeated by Gujarat king Mularaja II.
Mahmud of Ghazni:
Turkish conqueror.
Capital: Ghazni (Afghanistan) became capital in 11th century.
Invasions: Attacked India 17 times (1000-1027 AD).
Plunders: Mathura (1018), Kannauj (1018), Somnath (1025, Kathiawar coast).
Raids: Gangetic valley (1019, 1029).
Scholar Al Biruni: Came with Mahmud. Wrote Kitab-ul-Hind, Tahkik-e-Hind.
Timur (Tamerlane):
Invasion of Delhi: 1398 AD.
Reigning Delhi Sultan: Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (Tughlaq Dynasty).
Post-Invasion Appointment: Appointed Khizr Khan as ruler of Punjab. (Khizr Khan later founded Sayyid Dynasty).
Genghis Khan (Temujin):
Mongol warrior-ruler, unified Mongol tribes.
Empire Extent: Across Asia to the Adriatic Sea.
Death: 1227 AD during campaign against Western Xia.
Nadir Shah:
Iranian ruler (Afsharid dynasty).
Attacked Delhi: 1739 AD.
Battle of Karnal (1739): Defeated Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.
Loot: Took immense wealth, including Kohinoor diamond and Shah Jahan's Peacock Throne.
2. Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD - 1526 AD)
Order of Dynasties:
Mamluk/Slave (1206-1290)
Khilji (1290-1320)
Tughlaq (1320-1414) - Longest ruling
Sayyid (1414-1451)
Lodi (1451-1526) - Last dynasty
Administrative Terms:
Iqtadari System: Introduced by Iltutmish. Land divided into Iqtas (large/small tracts) assigned to soldiers, officers, nobles. Influenced Bahmani & Vijayanagar.
Dabir: Secretary
Faujdar: Army Commander
Sipahsalar: Army Commander
Amil: Revenue Officer (State Level)
Barid: Intelligence Officer/Agent
Khwaja: Accounts Officer
Kotwal: Head of city law and order
Muhatasib: Head of municipality law and order
Muftis: Expounder of law
Ulema: Learned theologians and Jurists.
Wazir: Chief Minister (e.g., Nizam ul-Mulk Junaidi for Iltutmish)
Diwan: Office (Central Secretariat)
Central Departments (under Balban/others):
Diwan-i-Arz: Military Department (Reorganized by Balban).
Diwan-i-Risalat: Department of Appeals / Foreign Affairs.
Diwan-i-Bandagan: Department of Slaves.
Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik: Department of Justice.
Diwan-i-Ishtiaq: Department of Pensions.
Diwan-i-Mustakhraj: Department of Arrears (Alauddin Khilji).
Diwan-i-Khairat: Department of Charity (Firoz Shah Tughlaq).
Diwan-i-Kohi: Department of Agriculture (Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
Diwan-i-Wizarat: Headed by Wazir.
Diwan-i-Waqoof: Department of Revenue.
Taxes:
Kharaj: Land tax.
Khams: Tax on booty captured in war (1/5th share).
Jizya: Tax on non-Muslims.
Zakat: Religious tax on wealthy Muslims (2.5%). Abolished by Sikandar Lodi.
Ghari: House tax (Under Alauddin Khilji).
Chari: Pasture tax (Under Alauddin Khilji).
Coinage:
Introduced by Iltutmish: Silver Tanka and Copper Jital.
Literature & Scholars:
Minhaj-us-Siraj: Wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (Persian, 1260). Chronicler under Iltutmish.
Hasan Nizami: Wrote Tajul-Maasir (Persian, first official history of Delhi Sultanate).
Amir Khusrau: Sufi poet, court poet of Alauddin Khilji (also served Balban, etc.). Known as 'Tuti-e-Hind' (Parrot of India). Works: Tughluq Nama, Wast-ul-Hayat, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa, Khamsa, Baqia-Naqia, Khazain ul Futuh. Popularized Qawwali. First to mention Jauhar in Persian. Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Ziauddin Barani: Muslim political thinker. Wrote Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Fatwa-i-Jahandari. Wrote first chronicle in 1356, second version 2 years later.
Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi: Wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (Persian chronicle). Claims Sayyid founder descendant of Prophet Muhammad.
Ibn Battuta: Moroccan traveler. Visited India in 1333 during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign. Appointed Qazi (judge) of Delhi. Wrote Rihla. Mentioned people wrote abusive letters to Muhammad bin Tughlaq, leading to capital shift idea.
Architecture:
Mameluke (Slave) Style: Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Qutub Minar, Adhai Din ka Jhonpra, Tomb of Nasir-ud-Din Mohammed, Tomb of Iltutmish.
Qutub Minar (Delhi):
Example of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Started by Qutbuddin Aibak (1199).
Completed by Iltutmish (1220).
Height: Approx. 73 meters (239.5 ft).
Storeys: Five.
UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993).
Quwwat al-Islam Mosque (Delhi): Built by Qutbuddin Aibak (1192-1198), 12th century.
Alai Darwaza (Delhi): Built by Alauddin Khilji (1311 AD). Part of Qutub complex. Uses red sandstone.
Tomb of Iltutmish (Delhi): Built 1235 AD. Part of Qutub complex.
Hauz-i-Sultani (Delhi): Large reservoir built by Iltutmish.
Siri Fort/City: Founded by Alauddin Khilji (1303 AD).
Tughlaqabad Fort/City: Founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Jahanpanah City: Built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Included Begumpuri Mosque).
Begumpuri Mosque (Delhi): Built during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign.
Moth ki Masjid (Delhi): Built during Lodi dynasty (1505) by Wazir Miya Bhoiya.
"Double Dome" Feature: Introduced by Lodi Dynasty (e.g., Humayun's Tomb).
Group of Forty (Chalisa / Turkan-i-Chahalgani):
Council of powerful Turkish slaves.
Formed by: Iltutmish to assist in governance.
Role: Took power after Raziyya's killing.
Abolished by: Balban.
2.1. Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206-1290)
Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210):
Founder of the Slave Dynasty and Delhi Sultanate.
Former slave of Muhammad Ghori.
Title: Lakh Baksh (Giver of Lakhs).
Capital: Lahore initially.
Death: Died in Lahore after falling from a horse while playing polo (Chaugan).
Architecture: Started Qutub Minar, built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Adhai Din ka Jhonpra.
Occupied Badaun (1197-98) and appointed Iltutmish its first Muslim Governor.
Iltutmish (Shamsuddin Iltutmish) (1210-1236):
Slave and son-in-law of Aibak.
Considered the "real founder" of Delhi Sultanate.
Capital: Shifted from Lahore to Delhi.
Introduced: Iqtadari system, Silver Tanka, Copper Jital.
Completed: Qutub Minar.
Built: Hauz-i-Sultani reservoir, Tomb of Iltutmish (1235 AD).
Wazir: Nizam ul-Mulk Junaidi.
Formed: Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Group of Forty).
Razia Sultan (1236-1240):
Daughter of Iltutmish.
First and only female Muslim ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
Ascended throne in 1236.
Married: Malik Altunia (Governor of Bathinda).
Imprisoned: At Qila Mubarak, Bathinda by Altunia.
Death: Killed near Kaithal (Haryana).
Book: "Razia Queen of India" by Rafiq Zakaria.
Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1266):
Eighth ruler.
Court Historian: Minhaj-i-Siraj.
Naib (Deputy): Balban served as his Naib.
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287):
Ninth Sultan. Originally a slave (Ulugh Khan), member of the 'Group of Forty'.
Policy: 'Blood and Iron' (Ruthless towards enemies, especially Mewatis). Consolidation rather than expansion.
Theory of Kingship: Formulated theory similar to 'divine right of kings'. First Muslim ruler to do so.
Title: Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God). Assumed title Ulugh Khan.
Introduced Persian customs: Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing monarch's feet). Started Nauroz celebrations.
Abolished: Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Group of Forty).
Established: Military department Diwan-i-Arz.
Revolt Suppression: Suppressed revolt of Tughril Beg in Bengal (1279). Appointed his son Bughra Khan as governor of Bengal.
Appointed Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies) before becoming Sultan.
2.2. Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)
Jalaluddin Khilji: Founder.
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316):
Second ruler, nephew & son-in-law of Jalaluddin.
Military Campaigns:
Gujarat (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Madurai (1311), Dwarasamudra (1310-1311).
First southern campaign (1307-08) to Devagiri.
Sent army under Malik Kafur to conquer South India.
Generals: Hizabruddin (Zafar Khan - famous general), Almas Beg (Ulugh Khan), Malik Kafur (Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla / Hazar Dinari), Nusrat Khan.
Administrative Reforms:
Market Reforms: Set up three markets in Delhi (grain-Mandi, cloth-Sarai Adl, horses/slaves/cattle). Appointed Shahna-i-Mandi (superintendent), Barids (intelligence officers), Munhiyans (secret spies). Rais Parwana maintained register of merchants.
Price Control: Strict regulations.
Military: Introduced Dagh (branding horses) and Chehra/Huliya (descriptive roll of soldiers).
Taxation: Imposed Ghari (house tax) and Chari (pasture tax). Made nobles pay land tax.
Nobles: Framed regulations to weaken their power (restricted social gatherings, intermarriages).
Architecture: Built Alai Darwaza (red sandstone), Siri Fort.
Court Musician: Amir Khusrau.
Positions Held Before Sultan: Arizi-i-Mumalik (Minister of War), Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies).
2.3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
Longest ruling dynasty of the Sultanate.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) (1320-1324):
Founder.
Former governor of Punjab under Alauddin Khilji.
Revolted against Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah.
Built: Tughlaqabad city/fort.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Jauna Khan) (1324-1351):
Eldest son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Known for ambitious projects and controversial decisions.
Five Disastrous Projects: Taxation in the Doab, Transfer of Capital (Delhi to Devagiri/Daulatabad), Khurasan Expedition, Qarachil Expedition, Introduction of Token Currency.
Capital Shift: Delhi to Devagiri (Maharashtra), renamed Daulatabad (1327). Reason cited by Ibn Battuta: Punish Delhi citizens for abusive letters.
Agriculture: Founded Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi (Agriculture ministry), abolished/reduced agrarian cesses, introduced Sondhar loans.
Appointments: Appointed low-born individuals to high posts (e.g., Aziz Khummar - wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam - barber, Mank Tabbakh - cook, Ladha & Pira - gardeners).
Visited Ajmer shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (first Sultan to do so).
Annexed Warangal (1323) as Prince Jaunakhan.
Contemporary: Vijayanagara Empire established during his reign (1336).
Traveler: Ibn Battuta visited during his reign (1333).
Architecture: Built Jahanpanah city, Begumpuri Mosque.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):
Successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (cousin).
Known as 'father of the irrigation approach' in India.
Taxes: Imposed four Quranic taxes (Kharaj, Khams, Jizya, Zakat).
Built: Diwan-e-Khairat (charity department).
Founded cities: Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur, Hissar.
Repaired Qutub Minar.
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq:
Last Sultan of Tughlaq dynasty.
Timur invaded during his reign (1398).
2.4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
Khizr Khan (1414-1421):
Founder. Appointed ruler of Punjab by Timur.
Captured Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodi (after Tughlaqs).
Did not assume title of Sultan, ruled as Timur's viceroy.
Claimed descent from Prophet Muhammad (according to Yahya Sirhindi).
Mubarak Shah:
Successor of Khizr Khan.
First Sayyid ruler to assume title of Sultan.
Appointed Hindu nobles in court.
Built: Mubarakabad city.
Book: Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi by Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi chronicles his reign.
Alauddin Alam Shah: Last ruler.
2.5. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)
First Afghan dynasty to rule Delhi.
Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489):
Founder.
Annexed Jaunpur Sultanate (Sharqi Dynasty) in 1476/1479.
Brought rulers of Kalpi and Dholpur under suzerainty.
Sikandar Lodi (Nizam Khan) (1489-1517):
Son and successor of Bahlul Lodi.
Founded: Agra city (1504).
Shifted Capital: From Delhi to Agra.
Pen Name: Gulrukhi.
Abolished: Zakat tax on grain.
Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526):
Last Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. Son of Sikandar Lodi.
Battle of Khatoli (1517): Defeated by Rana Sanga of Mewar.
First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated and killed by Babur, leading to the establishment of the Mughal Empire.
3. Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)
Founders: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (Sangama Dynasty). Ministers of Kampili kingdom.
Establishment: 1336 AD, on banks of River Tungabhadra.
Capital: Hampi (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Extent: Krishna river (North) to extreme South peninsula.
Dynasties:
Sangama (1336-1485): Harihara I, Bukka Raya I, Deva Raya I, Deva Raya II, Rajasekhara (last).
Saluva (1485-1505): Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya (founder), Thimma Bhupala, Narasimha Raya II, Sadasiva (last).
Tuluva (1505-1570): Vira Narasimha Raya (founder), Krishna Deva Raya, Achyuta Deva Raya, Rama Raya, Venkata (last).
Aravidu (1570-1646): Tirumala Deva Raya (founder), Sriranga III (last).
Krishna Deva Raya (Tuluva Dynasty):
Title: 'Establisher of the Yavana kingdom' (Yavanarajya Sthapanacharya).
Founded: Nagalapuram township (near Vijayanagar) after his mother.
Wrote: Amuktamalyada (Telugu epic poem).
Portuguese Traveler Domingo Paes visited during his reign.
Conflict with Bahmani Sultanate: Over fertile Raichur Doab (land between Krishna & Tungabhadra rivers). Started during Harihara Raya I's time.
Battle of Raichur (1520): Vijayanagara defeated Bijapur Sultanate.
Deva Raya I (Sangama Dynasty): Married his daughter to Firoz Shah Bahmani (Bahmani Sultan) after defeat (1406-07).
Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) (1565):
Fought between Vijayanagara (led by Aliya Rama Raya) and Deccan Sultanates alliance.
Result: Decisive defeat for Vijayanagara, Rama Raya killed. Led to the decline/destruction of the empire.
Administration & Society:
Influenced by: Delhi Sultanate's Iqta system (Nayankara system).
Amara-Nayakas: Military commanders given territories (Amaram) to govern. Collected taxes from peasants, traders, craftspersons. Maintained troops for the king.
Local Merchant Communities: Kudirai Chettis (horse merchants).
Pattanulkars: Silk weavers who migrated from Gujarat.
Dominant Income Source: Land revenue (Sist). Also customs, tributes.
Regions Included: Tamil, Karnataka, Telugu speaking areas primarily. Maratha region was NOT a core part.
Term 'Karnataka Samrajyamu': Used by contemporaries to describe the empire.
Architecture:
Anantraj Sagar Tank: Built by Vijayanagara rulers (dam on Maldevi river).
Provida Style: Belonged to Vijayanagara Empire.
Other Structures: Queen's Bath, Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables, Royal Platform (Mahanavami Dibba), Virupaksha Temple (Hampi).
Foreign Travelers:
Nicolo de Conti (Italy): Visited during Deva Raya I's reign.
Fernao Nuniz (Portugal): Visited during Achyuta Deva Raya's reign.
Domingo Paes (Portugal): Visited during Krishna Deva Raya's reign.
Athanasius Nikitin (Russia): Visited Bahmani kingdom, mentioned Vijayanagar.
4. Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527)
Founder: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu / Zafar Khan) (1347).
Capital: Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) initially (1347-1425), later shifted to Muhammadabad (Bidar) by Ahmad Shah Wali.
Mahmud Gawan (Khawaja Mahmud Gilani):
Persian trader, became Prime Minister under Humayun Shah.
Title: Malik-ut-Tujjar (Chief of Merchants).
Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-1436): Shifted capital to Bidar. Tomb located in Ashtoor (near Bidar).
Breakup: Disintegrated into 5 independent states (Deccan Sultanates) after 1482:
Bijapur (Adil Shahi): Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah.
Ahmednagar (Nizam Shahi): Founded by Malik Ahmad Bahri. Malik Ambar was a notable regent here.
Berar (Imad Shahi): Founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk (1490). Capital: Ellichpur. Annexed by Ahmednagar (1574).
Golconda (Qutb Shahi): Founded by Quli Qutb Shah. Golconda fort was their capital.
Bidar (Barid Shahi): Founded by Amir Ali Barid.
Administration: Provinces administered by Tarafdars.
5. Mughal Empire (1526-1857)
Chronology of Major Emperors: Babur -> Humayun -> Akbar -> Jahangir -> Shah Jahan -> Aurangzeb -> Bahadur Shah Zafar (last).
Land Revenue System:
Assessment (Jama): The amount assessed.
Collection (Hasil): The amount actually collected.
Land Types (under Akbar): Polaj (continuously cultivated), Parauti (fallow 1-2 yrs), Chachar (fallow 3-4 yrs), Banjar (fallow 5+ yrs).
Measurement Unit: Gaz, divided into Tassuj.
Abwab: Temporary/circumstantial taxes levied above the regular rent.
Mansabdari System:
Introduced by Akbar (1571).
Grading system for ranking officials (Mansabdars) based on Zat (personal rank & salary) and Sawar (cavalrymen to maintain).
Fixed rank, salary, military responsibilities.
Lowest rank (under Akbar): 10. Highest: 10,000 (usually for princes).
Administration Officials:
Wazir: Prime Minister.
Mir Bakshi: Head of military dept, nobility, intelligence.
Mir Saman: In charge of imperial household.
Mir Atish: Head of ordnance/artillery.
Mir Bahr (Mir-i-Bahr): In charge of navy/ports.
Qazi: Judge.
Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of religious endowments/charity.
Court Language: Persian. Mughal chronicles (e.g., Akbarnama) written in Persian.
Architecture:
Indo-Islamic Style: Blend of Indian and Islamic elements. (Examples: Mandu, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Jama Masjid).
Pietra Dura: Inlay technique using polished coloured stones (popular under Shah Jahan). Seen in Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Diwan-i-Am).
Literature & Translation:
Akbar: Commissioned translation of Ramayana and Mahabharata (Razmnama) into Persian (by Faizi, Badauni).
Dara Shikoh: Translated Upanishads into Persian (1657), titled Sirr-i-Akbar. Wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain.
Abul Fazl: Wrote Akbarnama (3 vols, 3rd is Ain-i-Akbari) and Tarikh E Akbari. One of Akbar's Navratnas (Prime Minister).
Gulbadan Begum: Wrote Humayun Nama.
Babur: Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Chagatai Turkic.
Jahangir: Wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography).
Mutamid Khan: Wrote Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri (biography of Jahangir).
Abdul Hamid Lahori: Wrote Badshahnama (official history of Shah Jahan).
Inayat Khan: Wrote Shahjahannama.
Foreign Travelers:
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (France): Jeweler, visited India 6 times during Mughal period (esp. Shah Jahan).
Francois Bernier (France): Physician, visited during Shah Jahan & Aurangzeb.
Antonio Monserrate (Spain/Portugal): Jesuit priest, visited Akbar's court.
Peter Mundy (England): Merchant/traveler, visited during Shah Jahan.
Seydi Ali Reis (Ottoman Turkey): Admiral/writer, visited during Humayun's reign (16th c).
Sir Thomas Roe (England): Ambassador of King James I to Jahangir's court (1615). Secured trading concessions.
Captain William Hawkins (England): Visited Jahangir's court (1608).
5.1. Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) (1526-1530)
Founder of Mughal Empire. Descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.
Real Name: Zahiruddin Muhammad.
Took title Padshah (Emperor) after conquering Kabul (1507).
Seized Kabul in 1504.
First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar (Rajput confederacy including Medini Rai, Hasan Khan Mewati, Mahmud Lodi).
Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated Medini Rai.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Defeated Mahmud Lodi (Afghan forces).
Introduced/popularized gunpowder & artillery in North India.
Built: Aram Bagh (Agra, 1528), Kabuli Bagh Mosque (Panipat), Sambhal Mosque.
Death: 1530 in Agra. Buried first at Aram Bagh (Agra), later shifted to Kabul.
Sons: Humayun (eldest), Kamran, Askari, Hindal.
5.2. Humayun (Nasiruddin Muhammad) (1530-1540 & 1555-1556)
Son and successor of Babur.
Shared power: Controlled Delhi, Agra, Central India. Brother Kamran got Afghanistan and Punjab (as per Timurid tradition).
Battle of Chausa (1539): Defeated by Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri).
Battle of Bilgram/Kannauj (1540): Defeated again by Sher Shah Suri. Forced to flee to Iran (Persia).
Exile: Spent 15 years in exile.
Restoration: Regained throne in 1555 with Persian help.
Built: Dinpanah city in Delhi (partly Purana Qila).
Tomb: Humayun's Tomb (Delhi), built by widow Biga Begum (Haji Begum). Architect: Mirak Mirza Ghiyath. UNESCO site. First garden-tomb, uses double dome.
Death: Died 1556 from fall from library stairs (Sher Mandal in Dinpanah).
Sister: Gulbadan Begum (wrote Humayun Nama).
Brother: Mirza Kamran.
5.3. Sher Shah Suri (Farid Khan) (Sur Empire: 1540-1555)
Founder of Sur Dynasty. Ethnic Pashtun.
Defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540).
Administration: Became model for Akbar. Introduced Rupiya (silver coin), standardized weights & measures.
Built: Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-i-Azam), many Sarais (rest houses with Dak Chowkis). Focused on construction of sarais.
Tomb: Sasaram (Bihar).
Sher Shah Suri Marg: Historical route, section corresponds to modern NHs (e.g., Delhi-Amritsar).
5.4. Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad) (1556-1605)
Son of Humayun. Born 1542.
Coronation: 1556 at Kalanaur (Punjab), age 13. Regent: Bairam Khan.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Defeated Hemu (Hemu Vikramaditya).
Battle of Haldighati (1576): Against Maharana Pratap of Mewar. Mughal forces led by Man Singh I. Indecisive/Mughal victory.
Battle of Tukaroi (Bajhaura/Moghalmari) (1575): Defeated Daud Khan Karrani (Sultan of Bengal & Bihar). Led to Treaty of Katak.
Conquests: Malwa (1562), Gondwana (1564), Chittor (1568 - defended by Jaimal & Patta), Ranthambore (1569), Gujarat (1573), Bihar & Bengal (1576), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), Kandahar (1595), Ahmednagar parts (Berar, Khandesh).
Khandesh merged in 1601.
Ahmednagar: First Deccan expedition sent under Prince Murad and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Annexed fully later by Shah Jahan (1632/1636).
Capital: Shifted from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585). First planned Mughal city. UNESCO site. Later Lahore, then Agra again.
Religious Policy:
Sulh-i-Kul (Absolute Peace).
Abolished Jizya (1564), Pilgrim Tax.
Built Ibadat Khana (Hall of Prayer) at Fatehpur Sikri (1575).
Issued Mahzarnama (Infallibility Decree) in 1579.
Founded Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith) in 1582 (ethical code, not really new religion). First disciples: Birbal, Prince Salim, Abul Fazl.
Administration: Consolidated Mughal empire. Introduced Mansabdari System (1571), Dahsala System (Land Revenue, with Todar Mal). Divided empire into 12 Subahs (Ajmer became a Suba HQ).
Navratnas (Nine Gems): Abul Fazl, Faizi, Tansen, Birbal, Raja Todar Mal (Revenue Minister), Raja Man Singh, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Fakir Aziao-Din, Mullah Do Piyaza.
Bairam Khan: Regent, Vakil, titled Khan-i-Khanan.
Architecture: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri complex (Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Tomb of Salim Chishti), Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort. Built Makhsudabad (later Murshidabad).
Contemporary: Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar.
Curator Appointment: Appointed H.H. Cole as curator of ancient monuments (1880). (Note: This seems anachronistic to Akbar's time, likely misplaced info in the source).
5.5. Jahangir (Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim) (1605-1627)
Son of Akbar.
Rebellion: Prince Khusrau (his son) rebelled, aided by Guru Arjan Dev. Jahangir executed Guru Arjan Dev.
Married: Mehrunnisa (Nur Jahan - 'Light of World') in 1611. She was influential, encouraged Persian art/culture.
Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adl).
British Visitors: Captain William Hawkins (1608), Sir Thomas Roe (1615). Granted trading rights to EIC.
Mewar Submission: Amar Singh of Mewar (son of Maharana Pratap) accepted Mughal service during his reign.
Architecture: Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah (Agra, built by Nur Jahan, first use of Pietra Dura), Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar), Moti Masjid (Lahore). Built Pathar Ki Masjid (Patna, 1621, by his son Parwez Shah). Sarai Nurmahal (Punjab).
Tomb: Shahdara, Lahore.
Book: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography). Biography Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri by Mutamid Khan.
5.6. Shah Jahan (Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram) (1628-1658)
Son of Jahangir.
Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.
Built: Taj Mahal (Agra, in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, Architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori), Red Fort (Delhi, including Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas), Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Shalimar Bagh (Lahore), Shish Mahal (Agra).
Capital: Shifted from Agra to Shahjahanabad (Delhi) (1648).
Annexed Ahmednagar fully (1632/1636).
War of Succession: Fought among his sons Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, Murad Bakhsh.
Dara Shikoh: Eldest son, favored successor. Given title 'Sultan Buland Iqbal'. Translated Upanishads. Defeated at Samugarh (1658), Deorai (1659). Executed by Aurangzeb.
Imprisonment: Imprisoned by son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort (1658) until death (1666).
Court Historian: Abdul Hamid Lahori (Badshahnama).
5.7. Aurangzeb (Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Alamgir) (1658-1707)
Son of Shah Jahan. Ascended throne after defeating brothers in War of Succession.
Title: Alamgir ('Conqueror of the World'). Also known as Zinda Pir (Living Saint).
Empire Extent: Reached its largest territorial limits under him.
Religious Policy: Reversed Akbar's liberal policies. Reimposed Jizya (1679), Pilgrim Tax. Stopped Nauroz celebrations, music/alcohol in court, Jharokha Darshan. Patronized Naqshbandi Sufi order.
Executions: Executed 9th Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675). Executed Maratha king Sambhaji (1689).
Conflicts/Rebellions:
Marathas: Major challenge (Shivaji, Sambhaji, Rajaram).
Sikhs: Conflict continued after Guru Tegh Bahadur's execution.
Rajputs (Marwar): Intervention in Rathor succession led to rebellion.
Jats (Mathura): Led by Gokula, Rajaram (1669, 1685).
Satnamis (Narnaul): Peasant/artisan sect rebelled (1672).
Bundelas: Led by Chhatrasal.
Ahoms (Assam): Defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in 1680s.
Yusufzai & Sikhs (North-West): Campaigns were temporarily successful.
Deccan Policy: Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Spent last 26 years in Deccan.
Architecture: Built Moti Masjid (Red Fort, Delhi), Badshahi Mosque (Lahore). Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad, tomb of wife Rabia-ud-Daurani). Attempted to vandalise Kailash Temple, Ellora.
Music: Banned music at court, but maximum Persian books on Indian classical music written during his reign.
Contemporary Events: Battle of Plassey (1757) occurred after his death, during reign of Alamgir II.
5.8. Later Mughals
Alamgir II (Aziz-ud-din) (1754-1759): Mughal Emperor during Battle of Plassey (1757).
Shah Alam II (Ali Gauhar) (1759-1806):
Mughal Emperor during Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Battle of Buxar (1764): Part of alliance (with Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah) defeated by British.
Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Granted Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to East India Company (signed with Robert Clive). Appointed EIC as Diwan on 12 Aug 1765.
Akbar II (1806-1837): Gave Raja Ram Mohan Roy the title 'Raja'.
Bahadur Shah Zafar (Bahadur Shah II) (1837-1857): Last Mughal Emperor. Exiled to Rangoon after Revolt of 1857.
6. Maratha Empire
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1674-1680):
Founder of the Maratha Empire (coronation 1674).
Expert in guerrilla warfare.
Battles: Pratapgad (1659), Purandar (1665 - Treaty of Purandar with Jai Singh I), Sinhagad (1670), Sangamner (1679).
Administration: Ashtapradhan (Council of 8 Ministers).
Taxes: Chauth (1/4th revenue from non-Maratha lands for protection), Sardeshmukhi (additional 1/10th levy on lands where Marathas claimed hereditary rights).
Peshwas (Hereditary Prime Ministers from Bhat family):
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720): First hereditary Peshwa. Helped Sayyid brothers overthrow Farrukhsiyar.
Baji Rao I (Baji Rao Ballal) (1720-1740): Son of Balaji Vishwanath. Great exponent of guerrilla tactics. Expanded Maratha influence northwards.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740-1761): Maratha power reached its peak. Defeat at Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Madhav Rao I (1761-1772): Restored Maratha power after Panipat.
Narayan Rao (1772-1773): Murdered.
Raghunath Rao (Raghoba): Uncle of Narayan Rao. Signed Treaty of Surat (1775) with British, leading to First Anglo-Maratha War.
Baji Rao II (1795-1818): Son of Raghunath Rao. Last Peshwa. Signed Treaty of Bassein (1802) with British (subsidiary alliance). Defeated in Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Maratha Families (Confederacy): Shindes/Scindias (Gwalior), Holkars (Indore), Gaikwads (Baroda), Bhosles (Nagpur), Peshwas (Pune).
Anglo-Maratha Wars:
First (1775-1782): Started due to Treaty of Surat. Ended with Treaty of Salbai (status quo ante). Marathas won overall.
Second (1803-1805): British victory. Treaties of Deogaon, Surji Anjangaon, Rajghat.
Third (1817-1819): British victory. Peshwa territories merged with Bombay Presidency. End of Maratha Empire. Treaty of Mandsaur (1818) signed by Holkars with British.
7. Sikh Gurus & Kingdom
Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539): Founder of Sikhism. First Guru. Born in Talwandi (Nankana Sahib). Celebrated as Gurpurab.
Guru Angad Dev (1539-1552): Second Guru. Standardized Gurmukhi script.
Guru Amar Das (1552-1574): Third Guru. Established Manji system.
Guru Ram Das (1574-1581): Fourth Guru. Founded city of Amritsar (Ramdaspur).
Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606): Fifth Guru. Compiled Adi Granth (later Guru Granth Sahib). Completed Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib). Executed by Jahangir for allegedly helping rebel Prince Khusrau.
Guru Hargobind (1606-1644): Sixth Guru. Concept of Miri-Piri (temporal & spiritual authority). Built Akal Takht.
Guru Har Rai (1644-1661): Seventh Guru.
Guru Har Krishan (1661-1664): Eighth Guru. Youngest Guru.
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675): Ninth Guru. Founded Anandpur Sahib. Executed by Aurangzeb for refusing conversion. Known as 'Srisht-di-Chadar' (Protector of Humanity).
Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708): Tenth and last human Guru. Founded Khalsa Panth (1699, Vaisakhi day). Military brotherhood. Declared Guru Granth Sahib as eternal Guru.
Banda Bahadur (Lachhman Dev): Led Sikh revolt against Mughals after Guru Gobind Singh's death. Captured and executed (1716).
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839): Founder of Sikh Empire in Punjab. Capital Lahore. Signed Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with British. Signed Tripartite Treaty (1838) with Shah Shuja and British (Lord Auckland).
Anglo-Sikh Wars:
First (1845-1846): British victory. Treaties of Lahore, Bhairowal. Battle of Aliwal (1846) - British defeated Sikhs.
Second (1848-1849): British victory. Punjab annexed by British East India Company (Lord Dalhousie) in 1849. Became part of North West Frontier Province.
Wars and Treaties (Consolidated)
Battle of Tarain (First - 1191): Prithviraj Chauhan III def. Muhammad Ghori.
Battle of Tarain (Second - 1192): Muhammad Ghori def. Prithviraj Chauhan III.
Battle of Chandawar (1194): Muhammad Ghori def. Jayachandra (Gahadavala).
Battle of Anhilwara (1178): Mularaja II (Gujarat) def. Muhammad Ghori.
First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur def. Ibrahim Lodi.
Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur def. Rana Sanga.
Battle of Chanderi (1528): Babur def. Medini Rai.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur def. Mahmud Lodi (Afghans).
Battle of Chausa (1539): Sher Shah Suri def. Humayun.
Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram (1540): Sher Shah Suri def. Humayun.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar (Bairam Khan) def. Hemu.
Battle of Talikota (1565): Deccan Sultanates def. Vijayanagara (Rama Raya).
Battle of Haldighati (1576): Mughals (Man Singh) vs Maharana Pratap (Indecisive/Mughal win).
Battle of Tukaroi (1575): Akbar def. Daud Khan Karrani (Bengal). -> Treaty of Katak.
Battle of Samugarh (1658): Aurangzeb def. Dara Shikoh.
Battle of Deorai (1659): Aurangzeb def. Dara Shikoh.
Battle of Karnal (1739): Nadir Shah def. Muhammad Shah (Mughal).
Battle of Plassey (1757): British EIC (Clive) def. Siraj-ud-Daula (Nawab of Bengal).
Battle of Wandiwash (1760): British def. French (Third Carnatic War). -> Led to Treaty of Paris (1763).
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Ahmad Shah Abdali def. Marathas (Sadashivrao Bhau).
Battle of Buxar (1764): British EIC (Munro) def. Combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), Shah Alam II (Mughal). -> Led to Treaty of Allahabad (1765).
Battle of Bedara (1759): British def. Dutch.
Battle of Swally (Swally Hole) (1612): British EIC def. Portuguese.
Battle of Khatoli (1517): Rana Sanga def. Ibrahim Lodi.
Battle of Aliwal (1846): British def. Sikhs (First Anglo-Sikh War).
Battle of Chinhat (1857): Indian rebels def. British (Henry Lawrence) initially (Revolt of 1857 context). Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah fought here.
Siege of Arcot (1751): British (Clive) captured Arcot (Second Carnatic War). Ended with Treaty of Pondicherry (1754).
Seven Years' War (1756-1763): Global conflict, Britain vs France. Led to British dominance.
Treaty of Purandar (1665): Shivaji and Jai Singh I (Mughals).
Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Shah Alam II and Robert Clive (EIC granted Diwani).
Treaty of Surat (1775): Raghunath Rao and British EIC.
Treaty of Salbai (1782): Marathas and British EIC (Ended First Anglo-Maratha War).
Treaty of Mangalore (1784): Tipu Sultan and British EIC (Ended Second Anglo-Mysore War).
Treaty of Seringapatam (1792): Tipu Sultan and British EIC (Ended Third Anglo-Mysore War).
Treaty of Bassein (1802): Peshwa Baji Rao II and British EIC (Subsidiary Alliance).
Treaty of Amritsar (1809): Ranjit Singh and British EIC.
Treaty of Sugauli (1815/16): Nepal and British EIC (Ended Anglo-Nepalese War).
Treaty of Mandsaur (1818): Holkars and British EIC (Ended Holkar involvement in 3rd Anglo-Maratha War).
Treaty of Yandabo (1826): British EIC and Burma (Ended First Anglo-Burmese War). Assam annexed.
Tripartite Treaty (1838): Shah Shuja (Afghanistan), Ranjit Singh, British (Lord Auckland).
Treaty of Amritsar (1846): British EIC sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh of Jammu (Dogra Dynasty) after First Anglo-Sikh War.
Treaty of Paris (1763): Ended Seven Years' War, restored French possessions in India.
Treaty of Versailles (1919): Ended World War I (Signed by Germany).
Miscellaneous
Carnatic Music: Origin related to Vijayanagara Empire. Purandara Dasa ('Father of Carnatic Music') was from Vijayanagara.
Man Kautuhal: Book on music compiled by Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior.
Raag Tarangini: 15th-century music text ascribed to Lochan Kavi (Lochan Pandit) of Mithila (Bihar).
Sangeet Raj: Book on music composed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar.
Bhakti Saints:
Nayanars (63): Devotees of Shiva (South India, 6th-8th c CE).
Alwars (12): Devotees of Vishnu (South India).
Basavanna: 12th c, South India. Founder of Lingayatism. Initially Jaina, minister of Chalukya king Bijjala. Founded Anubhava Mantapa.
Vallabhacharya: Founder of Pushtimarg (Bhakti sect). Philosophy: Shuddha Advaita.
Sufism: Mystic sect of Islam (Tasawwuf). Emphasizes introspection, spiritual closeness to God.
Sama: Recitation/listening of sacred songs/music.
Wilayat: Spiritual territory of a Sufi.
Sharqi Dynasty (Jaunpur Sultanate): Founded by Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar (1394). Ruled Jaunpur. Defeated by Bahlul Lodi (1479).
Regional Dynasties/States:
Paramara Dynasty (Rajput): Ruled Malwa (9th-14th c). Founder Upendra/Krishnaraja. Built Bhojshala (Dhar, MP).
Hoysala Dynasty: Ruled Karnataka region (10th-14th c). Capital Dorasamudra. Built Hoysaleswara Temple (1150, Belur, Dark Schist Stone).
Ahom Kingdom (Assam): Founded by Chaolung Sukapha (13th c). Ruled Assam for 600 yrs. Annexed by British (1826, Treaty of Yandabo). Built Rang Ghar (amphitheatre). Lachit Borphukan defeated Mughals at Saraighat (1671).
Kashmir: Ruled by King Lalitaditya Muktapida. Sold to Dogra Dynasty (Gulab Singh) by British via Treaty of Amritsar (1846).
Hyderabad: Founded as independent state by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (Chin Qilich Khan) in 1724. Last Nizam Osman Ali Khan (ruled till 1948).
Bengal (Independent): Founded by Murshid Quli Khan (1717). Capital shifted to Murshidabad (1704, previously Makhsudabad). Successor Alivardi Khan (ruled 1740-1756). Successor Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-1757).
Mysore: Ruled by Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder Ali became ruler (1761). Succeeded by Tipu Sultan ('Tiger of Mysore', died 1799). Mysore Palace architect Henry Irwin.
Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk.
Architecture/Monuments (Miscellaneous):
Hawa Mahal (Jaipur): Rajput architecture. Built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh.
Udaipur City: Founded by Rana Udai Singh II (Mewar) after fall of Chittor (1568). Known as 'City of Lakes', 'Venice of the East'.
Mysore Palace (Amba Vilas): Indo-Saracenic style. Architect Henry Irwin. Official residence of Wodeyar dynasty.
Golconda Fort (Hyderabad): Originally built by Kakatiyas. Principal capital of Qutb Shahi dynasty. Originally called Mankal. Built on hilltop (1143?). (Date seems early for Qutb Shahi association).
Chitradurg Fort (Karnataka): Built by Chalukyas, Hoysalas, later Nayakas of Chitradurga.
Daulatabad Fort (Maharashtra): Built by Yadava dynasty.
Fort Aguada (Goa): Built by Portuguese.
Neemrana Baori (Alwar, Rajasthan): Ancient stepwell.
Govind Deva Temple (Vrindavan): Built 1590 by Raja Man Singh (Jaipur). Used red sandstone.
Junagarh Fort (Bikaner): Built 1588-94 by Raja Rai Singh. Originally called Chintamani.
Charminar (Hyderabad): Built 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. (Incorrect construction year 1664 given in Q.488).
Shaheed Minar (Kolkata): Built 1828 (Ochterlony Monument).
Chand Minar (Daulatabad): Built 1445 by Ala-ud-din Bahmani.
Jhulta Minar (Ahmedabad): Sidi Bashir Mosque Minarets (1452?).
Qutub Minar (Delhi): Tallest brick minaret (13th c). Red and buff sandstone. Height 72.5m. Started by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish.
Khajuraho Temples (MP): Built by Chandelas (950-1050 AD). Hindu & Jain temples. Known for Nagara style architecture and erotic sculptures. Equal importance to human experience and spiritual pursuit. Notable: Kandariya Mahadeo, Lakshmana, Chausath Yogini.
Medieval Terms:
Bhoga: Revenue assignment / Tax on gifts, fruits etc (Gupta period) / Land enjoyed directly by king. (Q.489 suggests Revenue Assignment).
Raqs: Dancing.
Pishtaq: Tall arched gateway (Indo-Islamic architecture).
Malik-ut-Tujjar: Chief of the Merchants (Title).
Uttarapatha Swamin: Lord of the North (Title assumed by Dharmapala).
European Powers in India:
Order of Arrival: Portuguese (1498), Dutch (1602), English (1608), Danish (1616), French (1664).
Portuguese: First to arrive (Vasco da Gama, Calicut), last to leave (1961, Goa). First Viceroy Francisco de Almeida (1505). Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa (1510). Writer Duarte Barbosa.
French: Established 1664. HQ Pondicherry. Governor Joseph Francois Dupleix (appointed 1742). Colony Chandannagar established 1673 (permission from Ibrahim Khan).
British East India Company (EIC): Granted Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa (1765). Annexed Punjab (1849).
Other Notable Figures/Events:
Prophet Muhammad: Founded Islam (7th century).
Hafez: 14th-century Persian poet. Collection: Diwan-e-Hafez.
Ferdowsi: Persian poet, wrote Shahnameh ('Book of Kings'). Court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni.
Kittur Chennamma: Ruler of Kittur (Karnataka). Led armed rebellion against British EIC (1824) against Doctrine of Lapse.
Sawai Jai Singh II (Jaipur): Founded Jaipur (1727). Built 5 Jantar Mantar observatories (Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, Varanasi). Appointed Subedar of Agra (1722).
Pliny the Elder: Roman writer, wrote Natural History.
Modern History
The Revolt of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny):
First major rebellion against British EIC.
Trigger: Introduction of Enfield rifle with greased cartridges (rumored beef/pork fat).
First Incident: Mangal Pandey (sepoy in Barrackpore) refused cartridges (March 1857).
Outbreak: Started at Meerut on 10 May 1857. Soldiers marched to Delhi.
Delhi: Rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor.
Battle of Chinhat (June 1857): Rebels defeated British forces under Henry Lawrence near Lucknow.
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