Ancient History YCT RRB

 

Part-1: Ancient History

1. Stone Age

• Chronology: Paleolithic Period → Mesolithic Period → Neolithic Period.

• Characteristics: Marked by tool use; transition from hunting/gathering culture to farming/food production. Early humans coexisted with Neanderthals and Denisovans.

• Major Periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic. (Copper stone is not part of the Stone Age).

• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters:

  • Location: Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh (Foothills of Vindhyan Mts.).

  • Discovery: 1957-58 by V.S. Wakankar.

  • Significance: Earliest traces of human life/Stone Age evidence in Indian subcontinent. Famous for rock paintings. Spans Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and historic periods.

  • Age: Caves approx. 30,000 years old; paintings approx. 12,000 years old.

  • Status: UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 2003). Consists of 7 hills, >750 shelters over 10 km.

• First Wheels: Made of wood (around 3500 BC, Mesopotamia/Iraq, Sumerian civilization).

2. Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) / Harappan Civilization

• Alternate Names: Bronze Age Civilization (used copper + tin for bronze).

• Timeline: Flourished around 2500 BC (Common dates: 2500-1750 BC; NCERT: 2600-1900 BC). Developed from 5000 BCE.

• Geography: Extended into Western India and Pakistan. Major sites centered around Indus River & tributaries.

• Key Sites & Discoveries:

  • Harappa: First site discovered (1921, Daya Ram Sahni). On Ravi river (Punjab, Pakistan). Findings: Sandstone human statues, granaries, bullock carts, bronze dancing girl, Pashupati seal, steatite beard man statue, woven cotton. 'Nataraja' like stone male dancing figure (lime stone).

  • Mohenjo-daro: Means 'Mound of the Dead' (Sindhi). Largest IVC city. On Indus river (Sindh, Pakistan). Discovered 1922 (R.D. Banerjee). Findings: Great Bath (large rectangular tank), Pashupati seal (possibly tricephalic). Surface explorations by German/Italian team began 1980.

  • Chanhudaro: Exclusively devoted to craft production (bead making, shell cutting, metal work, seals, weights). Curved bricks found. Excavated 1931 (N.G. Majumdar). (Sindh, Pakistan).

  • Dholavira: Gujarat (Rann of Kutch). Discovered 1967-68 (Jagat Pati Joshi). Known for water management system/reservoirs. UNESCO site (2021).

  • Lothal: Gujarat. Near sources of carnelian. Port town.

  • Surkotada: Gujarat (Kutch). Discovered 1964 (J.P. Joshi). Horse bone evidence found.

  • Ropar: Punjab, India.

  • Banawali, Balu: Haryana.

  • Kalibanga: Rajasthan.

  • Nageshwar, Balakot: Sources for shells.

  • Shortughai: Afghanistan. Source for lapis lazuli.

  • Manda: Jammu & Kashmir (Northernmost site mentioned, not associated with craft production in Q32).

  • Not IVC: Uruk (Sumerian), Ajamgarh.

• Materials & Crafts:

  • Construction: Burnt bricks (standard 4:2:1 ratio).

  • Seals: Mostly square, made of Steatite (soft stone), used for commerce. Frequently depict Bull, elephant, rhinoceros. Found in Mesopotamia (trade).

  • Procurement: Shells (Nageshwar, Balakot), Lapis Lazuli (Shortughai), Carnelian (Lothal), Steatite (S. Raj/N. Guj), Metal (Rajasthan).

• Features: Urban civilization, sophisticated construction (brick buildings), trade networks.

• Religion: Worshipped proto-Shiva (Pashupati), Mother Goddess, animals (bull), Swastika symbol used. Did not worship Vishnu.

• Excavations: B.B. Lal excavated Hastinapura (related context, post-IVC flood). R.E.M. Wheeler excavated Harappa/Mohenjo-daro (became ASI DG in 1944).

3. Vedic Civilization

• Timeline: Approx. 1500 BC to 500 BC.

• Vedas (Four): Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. Considered earliest Indo-Aryan literary record. Compiled by Maharishi Krishna Dvaipayana (Vyasa).

  • Rigveda: Oldest & largest Veda. Collection of hymns (~10,600 verses, 1028 hymns including Valkhilya). Organized into 10 Mandalas. Oldest Indo-European text. Part of Vedatrayi. Aitareya Upanishad belongs to it.

  • Samaveda: Veda of melodies/chants ("Book of Song"). Related Upveda: Gandharva Veda (music, dance, poetry). Part of Vedatrayi.

  • Yajurveda: Veda of sacrificial formulas/rituals ('Book of rituals'). Contains prose formulas & verses. Written in prose & poetry. 'Yajur' means sacrifice/worship. Related Upveda: Dhanur Veda (warfare/archery). Part of Vedatrayi.

  • Atharvaveda: Contains magical spells, charms, rituals, captivations, medicine/disease treatments. Also called Brahma Veda. Mundaka Upanishad belongs to it. Earliest mention of Kashi.

• Vedic Literature Components:

  • Upanishads: Philosophical texts, basic source of Indian Philosophy (also called Vedanta). Meaning 'sitting nearby devotedly'. 108 main ones listed (Muktika Canon), 11 considered authentic. Examples: Brihadaranyaka (largest), Mundaka (smallest, source of 'Satyameva Jayate'), Taittiriya, Chandogya (oldest), Katha, Aitareya (oldest), Maha Upanishad (source of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam').

  • Aranyakas: Forest texts.

  • Brahmanas: Commentaries on Vedas.

  • Vedangas (6 Limbs): Shiksha (phonetics), Chhanda (metrics), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology - explains complex words, by Yaska), Jyotisha (astronomy), Kalpa (rituals).

  • Not Vedic: Pitakas (Buddhist).

• Vedic Gods Classification:

  • Terrestrial (Prithvisthana): Prithvi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati, rivers.

  • Atmospheric (Antarikshasthana): Indra, Rudra, Vayu, Vata, Prujanaya.

  • Celestial (Dyusthana): Surya, Pushan, Vishnu, Mitra, Adityas, Ushas, Asvins.

• Key Concepts & Terms:

  • Satyameva Jayate: "Truth alone triumphs," from Mundaka Upanishad. National motto.

  • Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: "The world is a family," from Maha Upanishad.

  • Ashramas (4 Stages of Life): Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa.

  • Panchabhoota: 5 basic elements (sky, air, fire, water, earth).

  • Tulabhara: Ancient practice of weighing person against commodity for donation.

• Philosophical Schools (Hinduism - Six Darshanas): Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta). Vaisheshika founded by Maharishi Kanad (concept of 'Paramanu'/Atom).

4. Mahajanpada Period (c. 6th Century BCE)

• Number: 16 Mahajanapadas emerged (mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya & Bhagavati Sutta).

• Location: Primarily in the Ganga valley.

• Most Famous: Magadha (Capital: Girivraja/Rajgriha → Pataliputra), Vatsa (Kaushambi), Kosala (Shravasti), Avanti (Ujjain).

• Magadha:

  • Rise began with Bimbisara (Haryanka dynasty, 544-492 BCE), contemporary of Buddha/Mahavira.

  • Son Ajatashatru succeeded Bimbisara.

  • Udayin (Ajatashatru's son) shifted capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra.

• Other Capitals: Vaishali (Vajji).

• Awadh: Known as Kosala in ancient times.

5. Jainism

• Founder: Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara). Mahavira (24th) gave present form.

• Tirthankaras (24): Spiritual teachers showing path to liberation (Nirvana/Moksha).

  • 1st: Rishabhanatha (Rishabhdev), Symbol: Ox.

  • 23rd: Parshvanatha, Symbol: Snake.

  • 24th: Mahavira (Vardhamana), Symbol: Lion. Born 540 BC (Kundagram near Vaishali), Died 468 BC (Pavapuri). Parents: Siddhartha, Trishala. Wife: Yashoda.

• Core Teachings:

  • Five Mahavratas (Constraints): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession/non-acquisition), Brahmacharya (celibacy).

  • Triratna (Three Jewels): Right Faith (Samyak Darshana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Gyana), Right Action (Samyak Charita).

  • Emphasis on supremacy of human life, non-violence.

• Sects: Digambara ('sky-clad'), Svetambara ('white-clad').

• Sacred Texts: Agamas (oldest literature). Written down c. 1500 years ago at Vallabhi (Gujarat). Language: Prakrit, Sanskrit.

• Terms: Jina ('conqueror'), Nirvana (liberation), Basadis (monasteries).

• Navakara Mantra: Universal prayer ('Namo Arihantanam' = bow to Arihants).

6. Buddhism

• Founder: Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha). Born 563 BC (Lumbini, Sakya clan). Father Suddhodana, Mother Mahamaya. Known as 'Light of Asia'.

• Key Life Events:

  • Enlightenment: Bodhgaya (Bihar), under Bodhi (Peepal) tree, Niranjana river bank, age 35.

  • First Sermon: Sarnath (near Varanasi), to 5 disciples. Called Dharmachakra Pravartana.

  • Death (Mahaparinirvan): 483 BC (age 80), Kushinagar (UP).

• Core Teachings:

  • Four Noble Truths: Suffering exists, Desire is the cause, Suffering can cease, The path is the Eightfold Path.

  • Eightfold Path: Right View, Resolve, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration.

  • Triratna (Three Jewels): Buddha, Dharma (teachings), Sangha (monastic order).

• Sacred Texts (Tripitaka - 'Three Baskets', in Pali):

  • Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monastic discipline (monks/nuns - bhikkhus/bhikkhunis).

  • Sutta Pitaka: Discourses of Buddha and disciples, central teachings. Includes Jataka tales (Buddha's previous lives), Therigatha (verses by nuns).

  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical principles, systematic doctrine.

• Sects: Hinayana ('Small Vehicle' - individual salvation, no divinity), Mahayana ('Great Vehicle' - Bodhisattva concept, Buddha's divinity, idol worship). Emerged after Buddha's death.

• Buddhist Councils:

  • 1st (483 BC): Rajgriha (Ajatshatru, Mahakashyap).

  • 2nd (383 BC): Vaishali (Kalashoka, Sabakami).

  • 3rd (250 BC): Pataliputra (Ashoka, Mogaliputta Tissa).

  • 4th (72 AD): Kashmir (Kanishka, Vasumitra).

• Architecture: Stupa (relic mound), Vihara (monastery), Chaitya (prayer hall).

• Key Sites: Bodhgaya (Bihar), Sarnath (UP), Kushinagar (UP), Lumbini (Nepal), Sanchi (MP), Ajanta/Ellora/Karle Caves (Maharashtra), Nalanda (Bihar).

• Art: Gandhara Art (Greco-Buddhist style, flourished under Kushanas). Ajanta paintings (depict Jatakas, Buddha's life).

• Spread: Ashoka sent Mahendra & Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka. Chinese scholars (Faxian, Xuanzang, Itsing) visited India.

• Terms: Bodhisattva, Nirvana, Jataka, Stupa, Vihara, Chaitya, Tripitaka.

7. Zoroastrianism / Judaism

• Zoroastrianism (Parsi):

  • Founder: Zarathushtra (ancient Iran).

  • Sacred Text: Zend Avesta.

  • In India: Mainly found in Maharashtra.

• Judaism:

  • Followers: Jews. Monotheistic.

  • Sacred Text: Torah (also Tanakh/Talmud). Hebrew language.

  • Prophets: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses.

8. Mauryan Empire (c. 322 - 185 BC)

• Founder: Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322 BC), defeated Dhanananda (Nanda dynasty). Guided by Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnu Gupta).

• Capital: Pataliputra.

• Rulers:

  • Chandragupta Maurya: Grandfather of Ashoka. Met Alexander. Known as Sandrakottos to Greeks. Received Megasthenes.

  • Bindusara: Son of Chandragupta, father of Ashoka. Follower of Ajivaka sect. Known as Amitraghata. Received Deimachus.

  • Ashoka the Great (c. 269-232 BC): Conquered Kalinga (261 BC), adopted Buddhism afterwards. Promoted Dhamma Vijaya. Sent missionaries. Used Prakrit, Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, Greek for inscriptions. Name 'Devanampriya' used.

  • Brihadratha: Last ruler, killed by Pushyamitra Sunga.

• Administration: Mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra and Megasthenes' Indica. Adhyakshas (Superintendents), Razuks (land/justice officers). Provinces (e.g., Suvarnagiri - gold hub).

• Key Events: Kalinga War (261 BC).

• Architecture/Inscriptions: Ashokan Edicts (on rocks/pillars, e.g., Major Rock Edict XIII on Kalinga war), Sarnath Lion Capital (sandstone, National Emblem), Pillars (e.g., Lauria Nandangarh), Sanchi Stupa.

• Foreign Relations: Megasthenes (Greek ambassador from Seleucus Nicator).

9. Post-Mauryan Period (c. 185 BC - 300 AD)

• Sunga Dynasty (c. 185 - 75 BC): Founded by Pushyamitra Sunga (killed Brihadratha). Ruled North India.

• Satavahana Dynasty: Founder Simuka. Capital Pratishthana. Issued coins with ruler portraits (first native dynasty to do so), lead coins.

• Kushan Dynasty: Founder Kujul Kadphises. Most famous ruler Kanishka (78-101 AD). Controlled NW India. 78 AD marks start of Saka Era. Held 4th Buddhist council. Patronized Gandhara art. Capital Purushpur (Peshawar).

• Other: Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription).

10. Gupta and Post-Gupta Empire (c. 320 - 650 AD)

• Gupta Dynasty (c. 320 - 550 AD): "Golden Age of India".

  • Founder: Sri Gupta. Real founder: Chandragupta I (319-334 AD).

  • Capital: Pataliputra.

  • Rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta (335-375 AD, 'Napoleon of India', Veena player, Allahabad Prashasti by Harisena), Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, 375/380-415 AD, Navaratnas, extended empire to Gujarat, Fa-Hien visited), Kumargupta I (founded Nalanda University), Skandagupta.

  • Administration: Empire (Rajya) → Provinces (Bhukti) → Districts (Vishaya) → Vithi → Villages (Gram).

  • Literature/Science: Kalidasa, Aryabhatta (Algebra, zero, Pi), Varahamihira (astronomy), Vishnu Sharma (Panchatantra). Sanskrit flourished. Prashastis written.

• Harshavardhana (c. 606 - 647 AD): Pushyabhuti/Vardhana dynasty. Capital Thanesar → Kannauj. Defeated by Pulakesin II (Chalukya) (Aihole inscription by Ravikirti). Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang) visited. Banabhatta was court poet (wrote Harshacharita). Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, Nagananda.

• Post-Harsha: Empire fragmented. Rise of Rajputs (c. 7th-12th cent). Tripartite struggle for Kannauj (Pala, Pratihara, Rashtrakuta).

11. South Indian Dynasties

• Chola Dynasty: Founder Vijayalaya (c. 850 AD). Capital Tanjore. Rulers: Raja Raja Chola I (built Brihadisvara Temple), Rajendra Chola I (built Gangaikondacholapuram, naval expeditions to SE Asia, 'Gangaikonda Chola'), Rajendra Chola III (last ruler). Karikala (great early king). Known for navy, temple architecture (Great Living Chola Temples). Land grants: Shalabhoga (schools), Brahmadeya (Brahmins), Vellanvagai (peasants), Pallichchhandam (Jain).

• Chalukya Dynasty:

  • Of Vatapi/Badami: Founder Jayasimha. Rulers: Pulakesin I, Pulakesin II (defeated Harsha, Aihole inscription). Built temples at Pattadakal.

  • Of Kalyani etc.

• Pallava Dynasty (c. 6th - 9th cent): Founder Simhavishnu. Capital Kanchipuram. Rulers: Mahendravarman I (wrote Sanskrit plays), Narasimhavarman I, Narasimhavarman II (built Kailashnath temple-Kanchi, Shore Temple-Mahabalipuram). Patronized Bharavi.

• Pandya Dynasty: Ruled region around Madurai (capital on Vaigai river). Attained supremacy 13th cent. Mentioned in Sangam literature. Meenakshi Temple at Madurai.

• Hoysala Dynasty (11th-14th cent): Ruled Karnataka. Capital Dwarasamudra. Founder Sala. Chennakesava Temple (Belur).

• Vijayanagara Empire (context for Hampi): Krishnadevaraya (patron of Virupaksha temple). Deva Raya II.

• Sangam Period: Literature (Tamil) provides info on Chola, Chera, Pandya. Epics: Shilpadikaram, Manimekhalai (Tamil).

12. Borderline Dynasties

• Pala Dynasty (c. 8th - 12th cent): Ruled Bengal. Founder Gopala. Capital Munger. Rulers: Dharmapala (founded Vikramshila University), Devapala. Buddhist patrons. Part of Tripartite struggle.

• Vakataka Dynasty: Founder Vindhyashakti. Ruled Deccan. Pravar Sen I ('Emperor'). Chandragupta II's daughter Prabhavatigupta married into dynasty.

• Eastern Ganga Dynasty: Ruled Kalinga (Odisha). King Narasimhadeva I built Konark Sun Temple. Anantavarman Chodaganga built Puri Jagannath Temple.

• Kakatiya Dynasty: Ruled parts of Deccan (Telangana). Built Golconda Fort (later rebuilt), Thousand Pillar Temple (Hanamakonda, by Rudra Deva). Rudrama Devi was a ruler.

• Chandela Dynasty (c. 9th - 13th cent): Ruled Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand). Built Khajuraho temples (950-1050 AD).

13. Ancient Literature and Litterateur

• Epics:

  • Mahabharata: By Vyasa. Longest epic poem. Original name 'Jaya Samhita'. Contains Bhagavad Gita (in Bhishma Parva). Also called 5th Veda. Legend of Bharata. War lasted 18 days.

  • Ramayana: By Valmiki. Tamil version 'Kambaramayanam' by Kamban.

• Sanskrit Writers:

  • Kalidasa (Gupta era): Plays (Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiyam), Epic Poems (Raghuvansham, Kumarasambhavam), Lyric Poem (Meghaduta), Ritusamhara. One of Navratnas.

  • Shudraka: Mrichchakatika (play).

  • Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa (play about Chandragupta/Chanakya), Devichandraguptam.

  • Bhasa: Svapnavasavadattam (play).

  • Dandin: Dashakumaracharita (prose), Kavyadarsha.

  • Banabhatta (Harsha's court): Harshacharita (biography), Kadambari (prose romance).

  • Harsha(vardhana): Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, Nagananda (plays).

  • Bharata Muni: Natyashastra (treatise on performing arts).

  • Panini: Ashtadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar).

  • Kautilya (Chanakya): Arthashastra (treatise on statecraft).

  • Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra (fables, Nitishastra).

  • Jayadeva (12th cent): Gita Govinda (devotional poem).

  • Kalhana (12th cent): Rajatarangini (history of Kashmir kings).

  • Ashvaghosha (Kushan era): Buddhacharita (epic poem on Buddha).

  • Varahamihira (Gupta era): Panchasiddhantika, Brihatsamhita (astronomy). Navratna.

  • Aryabhata (Gupta era): Aryabhatiyam (mathematics/astronomy).

  • Bhaskaracharya I (7th cent): Mathematician.

  • Bhaskaracharya II (12th cent): Lilavati (mathematics).

  • Sushruta: Sushruta Samhita (medicine/surgery).

  • Charaka: Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda).

  • Kamandaka: Nitisara.

• Other Languages:

  • Gunadhya: Brihatkatha (Paisachi language).

  • Tiruvalluvar: Tirukkural (Tamil couplets).

  • Kamban: Kambaramayanam (Tamil).

  • Sangam Epics: Shilpadikaram, Manimekhalai (Tamil).

• Foreign Writers:

  • Megasthenes (Greek): Indica.

• Translations: George Buhler translated Manusmriti to English.

14. Ancient Period Architecture / Painting / Music

• Temple Styles:

  • Nagara (North India): Built on platform, steps, Shikhara (tower), usually no large boundary walls/gateways. (e.g., Khajuraho).

  • Dravida (South India): Vimana (tower), Gopuram (gateway), enclosed walls. (e.g., Brihadisvara).

• Key Temples & Monuments:

  • Khajuraho Temples (MP): Chandela rulers (950-1050 AD). Nagara style. Hindu/Jain. Kandariya Mahadev temple is prominent. UNESCO site.

  • Konark Sun Temple (Odisha): Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga, 13th cent). Known as 'Black Pagoda'. UNESCO site.

  • Lingraj Temple (Bhubaneswar, Odisha): Yayati Keshri I (Somavanshi, 11th cent). Dedicated to Shiva. Kalinga style.

  • Brihadisvara Temple (Thanjavur, TN): Raja Raja Chola I (c. 1010 AD). Dravida style. Dedicated to Shiva. UNESCO site (Great Living Chola Temples). Granite.

  • Gangaikondacholapuram Temple (TN): Rajendra Chola I. UNESCO site (Great Living Chola Temples).

  • Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram, TN): Raja Raja Chola II. UNESCO site (Great Living Chola Temples).

  • Sanchi Stupa (MP): Ashoka (3rd cent BCE). Buddhist monument. Well-preserved. UNESCO site. Harmika, Yashti, Chhatri components.

  • Mahabodhi Temple (Bodhgaya, Bihar): Marks Buddha's enlightenment. UNESCO site.

  • Somnath Temple (Gujarat): Ancient Shiva temple (Jyotirlinga). Rebuilt many times.

  • Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): Jain temples. Vimal Shah (11th-13th cent). Marble carvings.

  • Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram, TN): Narasimhavarman II (Pallava, 7th-8th cent). Dravida style. UNESCO site.

  • Kailashnath Temple (Kanchipuram, TN): Narasimhavarman II (Pallava).

  • Kailash Temple (Ellora Cave 16, Maharashtra): Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. Rock-cut monolith.

  • Virupaksha Temple (Hampi, Karnataka): Chalukya style (also Vijayanagara patronage). Dedicated to Shiva. UNESCO site.

  • Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal, Karnataka): Chalukya era. UNESCO site.

  • Pattadakal Monuments (Karnataka): Chalukya rulers (7th-8th cent). Hindu/Jain temples. UNESCO site.

  • Chennakesava Temple (Belur, Karnataka): Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (1117 AD). Hoysala architecture.

  • Jagannath Temple (Puri, Odisha): Anantavarman Chodaganga. Known as 'White Pagoda'.

  • Kamakhya Temple (Assam).

  • Sabarimala Temple (Kerala): Dedicated to Ayyappa.

  • Mahakaleshwara Temple (Ujjain, MP): Jyotirlinga.

  • Murudeshwar Temple (Karnataka): Tall Shiva statue.

  • Thousand Pillar Temple (Hanamakonda, Telangana): Kakatiya dynasty.

• Cave Architecture:

  • Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Buddhist (~30 caves, 2nd BC - 7th AD). Famous paintings (Jatakas, Buddha's life). UNESCO site.

  • Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Hindu, Buddhist, Jain (~34 caves). Rock-cut. Kailash Temple (Cave 16). UNESCO site. Built by Rashtrakutas etc.

  • Elephanta Caves (Mumbai, Maharashtra): Hindu (Shiva), Buddhist (~7 caves, 5th-7th cent). UNESCO site.

  • Karle Caves (Maharashtra): Buddhist Chaitya halls (2nd BC - 10th AD). Satavahana period.

  • Khandagiri Caves (Odisha): Excavated by Kharavela. Jain/Buddhist influence.

• Other Structures:

  • Gommateshwara Statue (Shravanbelagola, Karnataka): 57 ft monolithic granite statue of Bahubali.

  • Gol Gumbaz (Vijayapura, Karnataka): Tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah (17th cent). Large dome.

  • Jantar Mantar (Delhi, Jaipur etc.): Astronomical observatories built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II (18th cent).

  • Vijay Stambha (Chittorgarh, Rajasthan): Built by Rana Kumbha (15th cent). Tower of Victory.

15. Rajput Dynasty (c. 7th - 12th Century onwards)

• General: Rose after Harsha's death, ruled fragmented kingdoms.

• Pratihara Dynasty: Founder Harishchandra. Real founder Nagabhatta I. Controlled Kannauj after Tripartite struggle.

• Chandela Dynasty: Ruled Bundelkhand. Built Khajuraho temples.

• Parmara Dynasty: Ruled Malwa (capital Dharanagri). Raja Bhoj was prominent ruler/patron of literature.

• Chauhan Dynasty: Hammir Dev Chauhan (Ranthambore, descendant of Prithviraj Chauhan).

• Sisodiya Dynasty (Mewar): Capital Chittorgarh. Rulers: Rana Hammir, Rana Kumbha (built Vijay Stambha), Rana Sanga, Maharana Pratap.

16. Ancient Period Miscellaneous

• Paper Invention: Credited to Cai Lun (China, Han Dynasty).

• 'Atom' Concept: Maharishi Kanad (Vaisheshika school) proposed 'Paramanu'.

• Kamarupa: Ancient name for Assam. Also called Pragjyotishpur.

• Epigraphy: Study of inscriptions.

• Name 'Bharat': Derived from mythological/historical figures named Bharata (mentioned in Mahabharata etc.).

• Name 'India': Derived from Greek (via Persian) for region across Indus river.

• Snake and Ladder: Game originated in India (2nd cent BC) as 'Moksh Patam', based on Hindu principles (karma).

• Indraprastha: Name given to Delhi when first established by Pandavas (Mahabharata).

• Positivism: Philosophical theory accepting only scientifically verifiable knowledge.