Modern History Notes
1. Arrival of the Europeans in India
Portuguese:
Vasco da Gama: Discovered the sea route to India in 1498 AD. Landed near Calicut (Kozhikode/Kappakdavu), Kerala. Welcomed by the local ruler Zamorin. First European to arrive in India via sea.
Goa Capture (1510 AD): Captured by Alfonso de Albuquerque from the Sultan of Bijapur (Yusuf Adil Shah) with help from Thimmayya. Became Portugal's first Asian territory and main base. Introduced the 'Blue Water Policy'.
Bombay Gift (1661/1662): Bombay was gifted by Portugal to British King Charles II as dowry upon his marriage to Catherine of Braganza.
First to Discover Sea Route: The Portuguese were the first Europeans credited with discovering the sea route to India.
British East India Company (EIC):
Formation: Formed on December 31, 1600, by a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I. Founded by John Watts, also known as John Company. Original name: "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies".
Initial Purpose: To trade with the East Indies (spice trade), later focused on India and China.
First Arrivals/Factories: Ships first docked at Surat (1608). First factory established at Masulipatnam (East Coast) in 1611. Factory established at Surat in 1612 (Permission from Mughal Emperor Jahangir via Capt. Hawkins).
First Presidency: Established in Surat.
Bengal Factory: First English factory in Bengal set up on the banks of the Hooghly River in 1651. Shifted to Calcutta in 1690.
Thomas Roe: Reached Jahangir's court (1615–18) and secured trading rights.
Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Decisive EIC victory (led by Robert Clive) over Nawab Siraj-ud-daula of Bengal. Consolidated British dominance in Bengal.
Dissolution: Dissolved on June 1, 1874.
French:
French East India Company: Established on September 1, 1664.
Colonies: Before independence, included Surat, Puducherry, Masulipatnam, Chandra Nagar, Mahe, Karaikal, Yanam. (Note: Patna & Goa were NOT French).
Order of Arrival: Portuguese -> Dutch -> English -> Danes -> French.
Key Figures:
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer, found sea route.
Christopher Columbus: Spanish sailor, reached America in 1492 while seeking India.
Alfonso de Albuquerque: Portuguese Admiral, captured Goa.
Thomas Roe: British diplomat, secured rights from Jahangir.
Robert Clive: Led EIC forces at Plassey, became first Governor of Bengal.
Queen Elizabeth I: Granted charter to EIC.
Akbar: Mughal Emperor when EIC was formed (1600).
Jahangir: Mughal Emperor who granted permissions for factories.
Other Notes:
Trade Routes: Arabian merchants used Red Sea/Mediterranean route. Suez Canal (1869) shortened the Europe-India sea distance.
Cape of Good Hope: Southern tip of Africa, used in the sea route.
Pre-EIC Indian Exports: Silk, cotton textiles, spices, pearls, salt, indigo, saltpetre, opium.
Queen Victoria as Empress: Proclaimed Empress of India in 1877 (PM Disraeli), though Crown rule began in 1858.
2. Rise and Development of Marathas
Shivaji Maharaj: Founder of the Maratha Empire. Born Feb 19, 1630, at Shivneri Fort. Father: Shahji Bhonsale, Mother: Jijabai. Trained by Dadoji Kondadeo. Died in 1680.
Succession after Shivaji: Sambhaji (younger son) ascended the throne in 1680 after defeating his brother Rajaram in a war of succession.
Ashtapradhan: Council of eight ministers established by Shivaji in 1674 to administer the empire. Included Peshwa, Amatya, etc.
Third Battle of Panipat (Jan 14, 1761): Fought between Marathas (led by Sadashivrao Bhau & Vishwas Rao) and Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali) (supported by Shuja-ud-daula, Najeeb-ud-daula etc.). Afghans won decisively; Maratha power significantly weakened.
Treaty of Salbai (May 17, 1782): Signed between Marathas and EIC, settling the First Anglo-Maratha War (started 1775).
Treaty of Bassein (Dec 31, 1802): Signed between Peshwa Baji Rao II and EIC. A decisive step towards the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.
Guerrilla Warfare: Shivaji used guerrilla tactics effectively in the 1660s.
3. Independent States (Mysore/Bengal/Punjab/ Awadh)
Awadh:
Annexation (1856): Annexed by British EIC. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta on grounds of misgovernance.
Asafi Imambara (Bara Imambara): Located in Lucknow, built by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula in 1784.
'Nursery of the Bengal Army': Awadh was called this due to large recruitment from the region.
Battle of Buxar (Oct 22, 1764): Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula fought alongside Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II against EIC (led by Hector Munro). EIC won.
Bengal:
Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Fought on the banks of the Bhagirathi river. EIC (led by Robert Clive) defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah (last independent Nawab, betrayed by Mir Jafar). Marked a major turning point, consolidating British power. Led to Calcutta's capture.
Battle of Buxar (Oct 22, 1764): EIC defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Led to Treaty of Allahabad (1765).
Diwani Rights (1765): Granted to EIC by Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II after Buxar (Treaty of Allahabad). Gave EIC the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
Murshid Quli Khan: First Nawab of Bengal (1717-1727). Shifted capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad (1704).
Nerve Centre of Nationalism: Bengal considered this in the early 20th century.
Mysore:
Hyder Ali: Ruler from 1761-1782. Fought First (1767-69) and Second (1780-84) Anglo-Mysore Wars. Signed Treaty of Madras (1769) with British after the first war. Defeated by Eyre Coote at Porto Novo (July 1781).
Tipu Sultan: Son of Hyder Ali, ruler from 1782-1799. Capital: Srirangapatnam. Assumed title 'Badshah' (1787). Introduced modern calendar, coinage, weights/measures. Associated with Srirangapatnam. Fought Third (1790-92) and Fourth (1798-99) Anglo-Mysore Wars. Died in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at Srirangapatam.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92): Ended with Treaty of Seringapatam (1792). Tipu ceded half his kingdom.
Total Anglo-Mysore Wars: Four.
Mysore Palace (Amba Vilas): Official residence of Wadiyar Dynasty, one of India's largest palaces.
Punjab:
Annexation (1849): Captured/annexed by British EIC after the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49), following the Battle of Gujarat.
Hyderabad:
Largest feudal state before independence.
Ruled by Nizams (Asaf Jahi dynasty, founded by Asaf Jah I).
Last Nizam: Mir Osman Ali Khan (1911-1948). Surrendered during 'Operation Polo' (1948) when India annexed Hyderabad.
Carnatic Wars:
First Carnatic War (1746-48): Extension of Anglo-French war in Europe (Austrian Succession). French under La Bourdonnais seized Madras. Ended with Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748); Madras returned to British.
Anglo Wars: Major wars fought by British: Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh, Anglo-Mysore. (Note: Anglo-Bangla War was not a specific series like the others, though battles occurred).
4. Political, Social and Economical Development in Colonial Period
Acts & Regulations:
Regulating Act (1773): First British parliamentary act to regulate EIC activities, mainly in Bengal.
Pitt's India Act (1784): Further demarcated political/commercial functions of EIC.
Charter Act (1813): Ended EIC trade monopoly except for tea and trade with China. Allowed missionaries.
Charter Act (1833): Created post of Governor-General of India (William Bentinck first).
Charter Act (1853): Allowed EIC to retain territories in trust for the Crown. Opened Indian Civil Services to competition, including Indians.
Government of India Act (1858): Transferred power from EIC to British Crown after 1857 Revolt. Governor-General became Viceroy.
Indian Council Act (1892): Introduced indirect elections.
Indian Council Act (1909) / Morley-Minto Reforms: Introduced separate electorates for Muslims. Lord Minto called 'Father of Communal Electorate'.
Government of India Act (1919) / Montague-Chelmsford Reforms: Introduced dyarchy at provinces. Basis for several reforms.
Government of India Act (1935): Introduced provincial autonomy, abolished provincial dyarchy, introduced dyarchy at Centre. Provided for All India Federation. Called 'a new charter of slavery' by Nehru.
Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act (1856): Legalized widow remarriage. Drafted by Dalhousie, passed by Canning. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar played a key role. (Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded association in 1850).
Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sharda Act) (1929): Fixed marriageable age (Girls 14, Boys 18). Sponsor: Harbilas Sarda.
Bengal State Prisoners Regulation (1818): Law for preventive detention.
Inland Emigration Act (1859): Restricted plantation workers from leaving tea gardens without permission.
Revenue Systems:
Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa. Fixed land revenue with Zamindars. Also called Zamindari system.
Ryotwari System (1820): Introduced by Thomas Munro in Madras, Bombay, Assam, Coorg. Peasants (ryots) considered owners; revenue collected directly.
Mahalwari System (1822/1830): Devised by Holt Mackenzie, popularised by Bentinck. In NWFP, Agra, Awadh, Central Provinces, Punjab. Revenue collected from village headman (Mahal).
Izaredari System (1773): Introduced by Warren Hastings. Right to collect revenue auctioned to highest bidder for 5 years.
Economic Aspects:
Drain of Wealth Theory: Propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji.
Poverty Estimation: First attempt by Dadabhai Naoroji (based on subsistence diet cost). Published in "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" (1901). Estimated Rs. 20 per capita income (1867-68).
Suez Canal (1869): Opening intensified British control over India's foreign trade by reducing transport costs.
First Textile Mill (1818): Established at Fort Gloster near Calcutta (failed). First successful cotton mill: Mumbai (1854) by Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar.
First Jute Mill (1855): Established at Rishra (near Calcutta) by George Acland and Bysumber Sen.
Infrastructure:
First Railway Line (1853): Laid from Bombay to Thane (34 km) under Lord Dalhousie. Operated by Great Indian Peninsula Railway.
Administration:
British Presidencies: Bengal, Bombay, Madras were key administrative divisions.
Civil Services: Cornwallis considered 'Father'. Competitive exams started via Charter Act 1853. Satyendranath Tagore first Indian to join (1863). Sardar Patel called 'Father' post-independence.
Municipal Corporations: Madras (Chennai) oldest (1688). Calcutta (Kolkata) set up by royal charter in 1726.
Key Figures: Dadabhai Naoroji (MP in UK 1892, 'Grand Oldman'), Lord Cornwallis, Thomas Munro, Holt Mackenzie, Lord Dalhousie, Lord Minto, Lord Lytton, Lord Rippon.
5. Development of Education in Modern India
Central Hindu College (Banaras): Founded by Annie Besant (1898). Later handed over to Madan Mohan Malviya (leading to Banaras Hindu University, BHU).
Wood's Despatch (1854): Sent by Charles Wood (President, Board of Control) to Lord Dalhousie (Governor-General). Considered 'Magna-Carta' of English Education in India. Recommendations: Vernacular languages for primary schools, Anglo-Vernacular for high schools, English medium for college. Led to establishment of Universities in Bombay, Madras, Calcutta (1857) on London University model.
Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875): Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan at Aligarh. Later became Aligarh Muslim University (1920).
Hunter Commission (1882): Appointed by Lord Rippon, chaired by Sir William Hunter. Reviewed progress of education post-Wood's Despatch. Included 8 Indian members.
Advocacy for Western Education: Raja Ram Mohan Roy strongly advocated for it.
Deccan Education Society (1884, Pune): Founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar. Runs numerous educational institutions.
Gyan Prasarak Mandali (1848): Adult education organization founded by Dadabhai Naoroji.
English as Medium of Instruction (1835): Decision by Lord William Bentinck based on Macaulay's Minute. Made official medium for schools and universities.
6. Newspaper and Magazines
First Newspaper in India: Bengal Gazette (also Calcutta General Advertiser / Hicky's Gazette). Started 1780 by James Augustus Hicky in Calcutta. First newspaper printed in Asia.
First Vernacular Newspaper: Samachar Darpan (Bengali). Published 1818. Editor: John Clark Marshmen.
First Hindi Newspaper: Udant Martand. Published May 30, 1826 from Calcutta by Pt. Jugal Kishore Shukla. 'Hindi Journalism Day' is May 30.
Kesari: Marathi newspaper founded/edited by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1881).
Maratha: English newspaper run by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
Commonweal (1914): Weekly newspaper founded by Annie Besant.
Young India: Weekly English newspaper published by Mahatma Gandhi (1919-1931).
Other Gandhi Publications: Navajivan (Gujarati/Hindi), Harijan (English/Gujarati/Hindi), Indian Opinion (South Africa).
A Nation in Making: Book written by Surendranath Banerjee.
Al Hilal: Weekly Urdu newspaper started by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1912-1914). Nationalist; critical of British Raj.
Printing Press: First in India by Portuguese (Goa, 1556). First by Britishers (Calcutta, 1778). First by EIC (Bombay, 1684).
The Bombay Times / Journal of Commerce (1838): Renamed "The Times of India" in 1861.
Vernacular Press Act (1878): Proposed by Lord Lytton to curb criticism in vernacular press. Repealed by Lord Rippon.
Translations: Sir Charles Wilkins translated Bhagavad Gita into English (1785).
Journals Abroad: Talvar (Berlin), Free Hindustan (San Francisco, Taraknath Das), Indian Sociologist (London, Shyamji Krishna Verma). Yugantar was published in Calcutta.
7. The Revolt of 1857
Start Date & Place: Began May 10, 1857, at Meerut.
Immediate Cause: Introduction of Enfield rifles with cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, offending Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
Key Centres and Leaders:
Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar (nominal leader)
Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of Nawab of Awadh)
Kanpur: Nana Saheb (Headquarters at Bithoor palace)
Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai (Manikarnika)
Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan
Bihar: Kunwar Singh
Barout (UP): Shah Mal (Jat leader, mobilised 'chowrasee des', killed July 1857)
Mughal Emperor: Bahadur Shah Zafar (II). Proclaimed leader by rebels. Arrested, exiled to Rangoon (Burma), died 1862.
Key Figures:
Mangal Pandey: Sepoy of 34th Bengal Native Infantry (Barrackpore). Fired at superiors (March 29, 1857), sparking initial unrest. Hanged April 8, 1857.
Rani Laxmibai: Died fighting British near Gwalior on June 18, 1858.
Tatya Tope: General, associated with Nana Saheb, captured Gwalior forces. Captured and hanged April 1859.
Governor-General: Lord Canning.
Suppression: Revolt largely suppressed by mid-1858. Peace proclaimed July 8, 1858.
Outcome: End of EIC rule, transfer of power to British Crown (Government of India Act, 1858).
Symbol: Lotus and Chapati.
Perspectives: Called 'First War of Independence' (V.D. Savarkar), 'Sepoy Mutiny', etc. R.C. Majumdar: "Neither first, nor national, nor a war of independence".
Not Involved: Bhagat Singh.
8. Peasant Revolt and Peasant Movement
Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroha) (1859-60, Bengal): Peasants refused to grow indigo. Led by Digambar Biswas and Vishnu Biswas. Play 'Nil Darpan' by Dinbandhu Mitra depicted farmers' plight. Led to appointment of Indigo Commission (1860, Chairman WS Seton-Kar).
Kisan Sabha Movement (1929, Bihar): Started under Sahajanand Saraswati. Led to All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS).
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928, Gujarat): Led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel against tax hike. Women gave Patel the title 'Sardar'.
Moplah Rebellion (Malabar Rebellion) (1921-22, Kerala): Uprising of Muslim tenants (Moplahs) against British and Hindu landlords. Led by Ali Musliyar.
Santhal Revolt (1855-56, Jharkhand): Led by Murmu brothers (Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav) against EIC and Zamindari system. Maharaja Mehtab Chand of Burdwan helped British.
Velu Thampi Revolt (1808, Travancore): Led by Velu Thampi (Dalawa of Travancore) against British supremacy.
9. Tribal Movements
Khonds Movement (1846-1857, Odisha): Led by Chakra Bisoi. Protest against ban on human sacrifice (Mariah) and new taxes. Peace agreement signed in 1848.
10. Social and Religious Movement
Brahmo Samaj: Founded 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta. Precursor: Atmiya Sabha (1815). Advocated monotheism, social reform (opposed Sati, child marriage, caste system). First Pradhanacharya: Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Succeeded by Debendranath Tagore.
Prarthana Samaj: Founded 1867 in Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang. Joined by M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar (1870). Focused on social and religious reform within Hinduism. Mahadev Govind Ranade was an early leader.
Arya Samaj: Founded 1875 in Bombay by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. HQ later moved to Lahore (1877). Slogan: "Back to the Vedas". Opposed idolatry, caste system, child marriage. Promoted widow remarriage, women's education. Dayanand Saraswati called 'Martin Luther of India'.
Ramakrishna Mission: Founded 1897 near Calcutta by Swami Vivekananda (chief disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa). Philanthropic and volunteer organization. Belur Math is its HQ.
Swami Vivekananda: Played major role in introducing Vedanta ('Neo-Vedanta') and Yoga to the West. Represented India/Hinduism at World Parliament of Religions (Chicago, 1893). Original name: Narendranath Datta.
Ramakrishna Paramhansa: Mystic, teacher of Vivekananda. Original name: Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya.
Theosophical Society: Founded 1875 in New York by Madam Blavatsky and Col. Olcott. HQ shifted to Adyar (Madras) in 1882. Annie Besant became prominent leader later.
Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers' Society): Founded 1873 in Pune by Jyotiba Phule. Aimed to liberate lower castes from Brahman domination, promote rational thinking, education. Phule wrote 'Gulamgiri' (1873).
Self-Respect Movement: Founded 1925. E.V. Ramasamy ('Periyar') was a key leader. Demanded equal rights for backward castes.
Harijan Sevak Sangh: Founded 1932 by Mahatma Gandhi to eradicate untouchability. Ghanshyam Das Birla was founding President.
Mahila Seva Mandal: Started 1852 by Savitribai Phule to promote women's rights.
Asiatic Society of Bengal: Founded 1784 by Sir William Jones. Promoted Oriental studies.
Servants of India Society: Founded 1905 in Pune by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Focused on social service and reforms.
Servants of the People Society: Founded 1921 in Lahore by Lala Lajpat Rai.
East India Association: Founded 1866 in London by Dadabhai Naoroji.
Veda Samaj: Founded 1864 in Madras by Keshav Chandra Sen. Renamed Brahmo Samaj of Southern India (1871).
Young Bengal Movement: Group of radical Bengali free thinkers from Hindu College, inspired by teacher Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (arrived Calcutta 1826). Cherished ideals of French Revolution, liberal thinking.
11. Indian National Congress (INC)
Formation: Founded on December 28, 1885, by Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume), a retired British civil servant. Lord Dufferin was the Governor-General at the time.
First Session (1885): Held in Bombay at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College. Presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. Attended by 72 delegates.
First General Secretary: A.O. Hume.
Key Sessions & Presidents:
1886 (Calcutta): Dadabhai Naoroji (First Parsi President).
1887 (Madras): Badruddin Tyabji (First Muslim President).
1888 (Allahabad): George Yule (First European/British President).
1906 (Calcutta): Dadabhai Naoroji. Swaraj adopted as the goal. Resolutions on Partition, Swadeshi, Boycott passed.
1907 (Surat): Presided over by Rashbihari Ghosh. Congress split into Moderates and Extremists on the banks of the Tapti river.
1911 (Calcutta): National Anthem "Jana Gana Mana" sung for the first time.
1916 (Lucknow): Presided over by Ambika Charan Majumdar. Moderates and Extremists reunited. Lucknow Pact signed between Congress and Muslim League, providing a joint political platform.
1917 (Calcutta): Annie Besant (First woman President).
1924 (Belgaum): Mahatma Gandhi (Only session presided over by him).
1925 (Kanpur): Sarojini Naidu (First Indian woman President).
1929 (Lahore): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. Declaration of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) passed on Dec 19, 1929. Decision to celebrate Jan 26 as Independence Day. Tricolour flag hoisted on Ravi river bank (Dec 31, 1929).
1931 (Karachi): Presided over by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme passed.
1937 (Faizpur): First session held in a village. Presided over by J.L. Nehru. Demand for Constituent Assembly put forward.
1938 (Haripura): Subhash Chandra Bose. National Planning Committee formed under Nehru.
1939 (Tripuri): Subhash Chandra Bose re-elected, defeating Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhi's candidate). Bose later resigned.
President during Independence (1947): Acharya J.B. Kripalani.
Longest Serving President (Pre-Independence, continuous): Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1940-1946).
Safety Valve Theory: Idea (promoted by Lala Lajpat Rai) that Hume founded Congress with official direction to provide a safe outlet for Indian discontent.
Quit India Resolution: Passed by AICC on August 8, 1942, in Bombay. Drafted initially by Mahatma Gandhi.
12. Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement
Announced: July 1905 by Lord Curzon (Viceroy).
Implemented: October 16, 1905.
Reason Given: Administrative efficiency.
Actual Reason (Believed): To weaken nationalism by dividing Hindus and Muslims ('Divide and Rule').
Division: East Bengal and Assam (Muslim majority) & Rest of Bengal (Hindu majority).
Swadeshi Movement: Launched on August 7, 1905, at Calcutta Town Hall as a protest against the partition.
Leaders: Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal).
Methods: Boycott of British goods, promotion of Swadeshi (Indian goods), boycott of government services, schools, courts.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale advocated a moderate/persuasive approach.
Symbolism: A tricolour flag (Red, Green, Yellow) with lotuses and a crescent moon was designed.
Impact: Gave impetus to Indian industries, especially cotton textiles.
Repeal: Announced in 1911 by Lord Hardinge II at the Delhi Durbar. Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
Related: "Amar Sonar Bangla" composed by Rabindranath Tagore.
13. Muslim League
Formation: Founded on December 30, 1906, in Dhaka. Founders included Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka, Waqar-ul-Mulk. Lord Minto-II was Viceroy.
Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution) (March 22-24, 1940): Adopted by Muslim League demanding separate states for Muslim-majority areas. Written by Zafarullah Khan, presented by A.K. Fazlul Haq. (Term 'Pakistan' coined earlier by Chaudhary Rehmat Ali in 1933).
Demand for Autonomy (1940): Resolution passed demanding autonomy for Muslim-majority areas.
Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946): Called by Muslim League to press for Pakistan demand after withdrawing from Cabinet Mission Plan. Led to widespread communal violence ('Calcutta Killings').
Karachi Session (1943): Adopted the slogan "Divide and Quit".
Opposition to Partition: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan strongly resisted the demand for Pakistan.
14. Delhi Darbar
Purpose: To mark the succession of British Emperors/Empresses.
Occasions: 1877 (Queen Victoria), 1903 (King Edward VII), 1911 (King George V).
1911 Darbar:
Attended by King George V and Queen Mary.
Annulment of the Partition of Bengal announced.
Declaration made to transfer the capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi. (Foundation stone laid Dec 12, 1911).
15. Home Rule Movement (1916-1918)
Inspiration: Irish Home Rule Movement.
Aim: Attainment of Home Rule (Self-Government) within the British Empire using constitutional means.
Two Leagues:
Bal Gangadhar Tilak's League: Launched April 1916 (Pune/Belgaum). President: Josef Baptista, Secretary: N.C. Kelkar.
Annie Besant's League: Launched September 1916 (Adyar, Madras). President: Annie Besant, Secretary: George Arundale.
Role: Served as a subsidiary unit of the Indian National Congress.
16. Revolutionary Movement
Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants of God) / Red Shirts (1929): Founded by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Badshah Khan/Frontier Gandhi). Non-violent movement against British rule in NWFP. Formally joined Congress (1929).
Lal-Bal-Pal: Trio of extremist leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal). Advocated Swadeshi and stronger measures against British rule.
Madam Bhikaji Cama: 'Mother of Indian Revolution'. Unfurled first version of Indian flag (Green, Saffron, Red) at International Socialist Congress, Stuttgart, Germany (1907). Flag smuggled into India by Indulal Yagnik.
Assembly Bombing (April 8, 1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw smoke bombs in Delhi Central Legislative Assembly to protest repressive bills (Public Safety Bill, Trade Disputes Bill). Associated with HSRA.
Lahore Conspiracy Case: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed on March 23, 1931, for the murder of British police officer J.P. Saunders (mistaken for James Scott, who ordered lathi charge that killed Lala Lajpat Rai).
Chandrashekhar Azad: Prominent revolutionary (HSRA). Used alias 'Pandit Harishankar Brahmachari' in Jhansi. Died in a shootout with police at Alfred Park, Allahabad (Prayagraj) in February 1931.
Kakori Train Robbery (August 9, 1925): Organized by Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) members near Lucknow. Planned by Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan. Key participants: Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Azad, Rajendra Lahiri etc. Led to arrests and executions (Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh, Lahiri).
Anushilan Samiti (Bengal, 1902): Early revolutionary organization. Established by Pramathanath Mitra, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Jatindranath Banerjee etc. Associated with Aurobindo Ghosh, C.R. Das, Bagha Jatin etc.
Ghadar Party (1913): Founded in San Francisco, USA. President: Sohan Singh Bhakna, Co-founder/Key Leader: Lala Har Dayal. Aimed to liberate India from British rule. HQ: Yugantar Ashram.
Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen. Pritilata Waddedar participated, led raid on European club, consumed cyanide to evade arrest.
Alipore Bomb Case (1908): Attempt to assassinate magistrate Douglas Kingsford (Muzaffarpur) by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki. Bomb mistakenly killed two British women. Chaki committed suicide, Bose executed (aged 18). Aurobindo Ghosh arrested, defended by C.R. Das.
Murder of W.C. Rand (1897, Pune): Plague Commissioner shot dead by Chapekar brothers (Damodar, Balkrishna) for tyrannical plague measures.
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (1924): Founded by Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Ram Prasad Bismil etc.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) (1928): Renamed HRA. Established at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi. Leaders included Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev etc.
17. Rowlatt Act (Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919)
Passed: March 1919 by Imperial Legislative Council.
Purpose: To curb nationalist activities and conspiracies.
Provisions: Allowed indefinite detention without trial, censorship of press, arrest on mere suspicion.
Reaction: Widespread outrage. Termed 'Black Act'. Slogan: 'No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal'.
Rowlatt Satyagraha: Launched by Mahatma Gandhi on April 6, 1919, as a nationwide non-violent protest against the Act.
18. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Date: April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day).
Location: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab.
Cause: Peaceful gathering protesting the arrest of pro-independence leaders (Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, Dr. Satya Pal) under the Rowlatt Act.
Event: British Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd trapped inside the walled garden. Firing lasted ~10 minutes.
Casualties: Official figure ~379 dead, >1000 injured. Actual figures likely much higher.
Aftermath:
Hunter Commission: Appointed by British government to investigate. Condemned Dyer's actions but imposed no significant penalty.
Protests: Rabindranath Tagore renounced his Knighthood. Mahatma Gandhi returned his Kaiser-i-Hind medal.
Revenge: Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor of Punjab at the time of massacre) in London in 1940.
Viceroy: Lord Chelmsford.
19. Non-Cooperation / Khilafat Movement
Khilafat Movement (1919-1924): Agitation by Indian Muslims, led by Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan etc., to preserve the authority of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph (Khalifa) after WWI. Supported by Congress/Gandhi to foster Hindu-Muslim unity. Khilafat Day: Oct 17, 1919. All-India Khilafat Committee (formed 1919) resolved in July 1921 that Muslims should not serve in British Army.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): Launched Aug 1 / Sep 5, 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi and INC. Aimed for Swaraj. Combined with Khilafat demands.
Methods: Peaceful, non-violent. Boycott of foreign goods, government services, titles, schools, courts, legislatures. Promotion of Swadeshi, hand spinning/weaving (khadi), Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability.
Adoption: Resolution passed at Calcutta Special Session (Sep 1920), confirmed at Nagpur Session (Dec 1920).
Withdrawal: Called off by Gandhi on Feb 12, 1922, after the Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 4, 1922, Gorakhpur district, UP) where protestors burned a police station, killing 22 policemen.
Impact: Working class strikes, student withdrawal from govt. schools/colleges, establishment of national institutions (Jamia Millia, Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith etc.).
20. Swaraj Party
Formation: January 1 / March 1923. Known as Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party.
Founders: C.R. Das (Chittaranjan Das) (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary). Formed after disagreement within Congress at the Gaya Session (1922) over council entry.
Aim: To enter legislative councils, oppose British policies from within, argue for reforms, and demonstrate councils were not truly democratic.
Key Leaders: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, N.C. Kelkar, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Vithalbhai Patel.
21. Mahatma Gandhi and his Initial Movements
Return to India: January 9, 1915, from South Africa. (Pravasi Bharatiya Divas celebrated on Jan 9).
Political Mentor: Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Advised Gandhi to travel India for a year.
First Public Appearance: Opening ceremony of Banaras Hindu University (BHU), February 1916. Criticized elite nature of nationalism.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Satyagraha in India. Against forced indigo cultivation (Tinkathia system) in Champaran, Bihar. Invited by Raj Kumar Shukla. Marked first Civil Disobedience.
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First use of Hunger Strike as a weapon by Gandhi. Supported cotton mill workers demanding wage hike.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Supported peasants in Kheda, Gujarat, demanding revenue remission due to crop failure. First Non-Cooperation.
Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): Nationwide hartal and protest against the Rowlatt Act.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): First mass movement led by Gandhi.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34): Started with the Dandi March (Salt March).
Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) (March 12 - April 6, 1930): Protest against British salt monopoly. March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Navsari district, Gujarat) covering ~240 miles in 24 days with 78 followers. Broke salt law on April 6. Led by Gandhi. Abbas Tyabji took charge after Gandhi's arrest; later Sarojini Naidu led the raid on Dharasana Salt Works.
Quit India Movement (1942): Called for immediate end to British rule. Slogan: "Do or Die".
Titles:
'Mahatma': Given by Rabindranath Tagore (1915).
'Gurudev' (for Tagore): Given by Gandhi.
'Kaiser-i-Hind': Awarded by British (Lord Hardinge) for ambulance service (Boer War), returned after Jallianwala Bagh.
Ashrams: Founded Phoenix Farm (near Durban) & Tolstoy Farm (South Africa); Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad), Sewagram Ashram (Wardha). (Note: Paunar Ashram founded by Vinoba Bhave).
Book: Hind Swaraj (or Indian Home Rule) (1909, Gujarati). Criticized modern civilization, advocated self-rule.
Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932): Founded to work for the upliftment of depressed classes and eradicate untouchability.
Natal Indian Congress (1894): Founded by Gandhi in South Africa to fight racial discrimination.
22. Civil Disobedience Movement
Launch: Started with the Dandi March (breaking of salt law) on April 6, 1930.
Aim: Complete disobedience of British laws and orders.
Key Features: Violation of salt laws, boycott of foreign goods/liquor, refusal to pay taxes, boycott of government services/institutions.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Agreement leading to suspension of CDM and Congress participation in Second Round Table Conference.
Dandi March: See details under Topic 21.
Regional Leadership: C. Rajagopalachari led the Vedaranyam Salt March in Tamil Nadu.
Bengal: All-Bengal Civil Disobedience Council formed by J.M. Sengupta.
23. Simon Commission (Indian Statutory Commission)
Appointed: November 1927 by British Government.
Purpose: To review the working of the Government of India Act 1919 and suggest further reforms.
Chairman: Sir John Simon.
Members: 7 British MPs, no Indian members.
Boycott: Widespread boycott by Indians ("Simon Go Back") because of the exclusion of Indians. Lala Lajpat Rai critically injured during a protest lathi charge in Lahore.
Arrival in India: February 3, 1928.
Members included: Clement Attlee (later PM). (Note: James A Scott was NOT a member).
24. Gandhi Irwin Pact / Round Table Conferences (RTC)
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin. Key terms: INC to suspend Civil Disobedience Movement, INC to participate in Second RTC, release of political prisoners (not involved in violence), withdrawal of ordinances, permission for peaceful picketing, permission for coastal salt making.
First RTC (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931): Held in London. Convened by PM Ramsay MacDonald. Congress boycotted it. Attended by Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Princely States, B.R. Ambedkar etc.
Second RTC (Sep - Dec 1931): Held in London. Mahatma Gandhi represented Congress. Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women. Failed due to disagreement on communal representation/separate electorates.
Third RTC (Nov - Dec 1932): Held in London. Congress did not participate.
Attended All Three RTCs: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Tej Bahadur Sapru.
25. Poona Pact (1932)
Background: British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award (August 1932), granting separate electorates to Depressed Classes (Dalits). Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail, Poona, in protest.
Agreement: Signed on September 24, 1932, between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (on behalf of Depressed Classes). Madan Mohan Malviya signed on Gandhi's behalf.
Terms: Abandoned separate electorates for Depressed Classes. Instead, reserved seats for them within the general Hindu electorate were significantly increased (from 71 under Communal Award to 147 in provincial legislatures, 18% in Central Legislature).
26. Azad Hind Fauj / Subhash Chandra Bose
Subhash Chandra Bose:
Born: Jan 23, 1897, Cuttack (Orissa). Father: Janaki Nath Bose.
Titles/Names: Netaji.
Congress President: Elected 1938 (Haripura), Re-elected 1939 (Tripuri). Resigned from Congress presidency April 1939 due to differences with Gandhi.
Forward Bloc: Founded by Bose on May 3, 1939, after resigning from Congress.
Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj: Idea first conceived by Mohan Singh. Formally established by Ras Bihari Bose (1942, Tokyo). Bose took command and reorganized it in Singapore (1943). Formed Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Oct 21, 1943). Brigades named after Gandhi, Nehru, Subhash, Rani Jhansi (women's).
Slogans: "Delhi Chalo", "Jai Hind", "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom".
Azad Hind Radio: Service started in Germany (1942) with Bose's leadership.
Andaman & Nicobar: Recaptured from British, named Shaheed and Swaraj Islands (1943).
INA Trials (Red Fort Trials) (1945): Famous trial of INA officers (P.K. Sehgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Shah Nawaz Khan) for treason. Defence committee led by Bhulabhai Desai, included Nehru, Asaf Ali etc.
27. Cripps Mission / Constituent Assembly
Cripps Mission (March 1942): Sent by British PM Winston Churchill during WWII. Headed by Sir Stafford Cripps.
Purpose: To secure full Indian cooperation for the war effort.
Proposal: Offered Dominion Status after the war, creation of a new constitution-making body, provinces free to join or not.
Outcome: Rejected by Congress (wanted immediate transfer of power) and Muslim League (wanted clear provision for Pakistan). Termed a 'post-dated cheque' by Gandhi.
Constituent Assembly: Proposed by Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). Formed to frame the Constitution of India.
28. Cabinet Mission (1946)
Sent by: British PM Clement Attlee (Labour Party).
Purpose: To discuss transfer of power and formation of interim government.
Members (3 British Cabinet Ministers): Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President, Board of Trade), A.V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty). (Note: Sir John Simon was NOT a member).
Arrival: Reached Delhi on March 24, 1946.
Proposals: Rejected demand for Pakistan, proposed a three-tier structure (Provinces, Provincial Groupings, Centre), formation of Constituent Assembly, Interim Government.
29. Quit India Movement (August Movement / August Kranti)
Launch Date: August 8, 1942, at the AICC session in Bombay (Gowalia Tank Maidan, now August Kranti Maidan).
Leader: Mahatma Gandhi.
Slogan: "Do or Die" given by Gandhi. ("Quit India" slogan coined by Yusuf Mehar Ali).
Aim: Immediate end to British rule in India.
Key Events: Widespread protests, strikes, underground activities. Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the INC flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan.
30. Provincial Election (1937)
Basis: Government of India Act, 1935.
Held: 1936-37 in 11 British Indian provinces.
Results: Congress won absolute majority in 5 provinces (Madras, Bihar, Odisha, Central Provinces, United Provinces), formed governments in several others (coalition in NWFP, Assam). In Punjab, the Unionist Party formed a coalition government with the Muslim League.
31. Mountbatten Plan / Partition of India
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Plan for the partition of India announced by Viceroy Lord Mountbatten. Outlined the method for transfer of power.
Indian Independence Act (1947): Passed by British Parliament based on Mountbatten Plan. Provided for creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, effective August 15, 1947. Abolished office of Viceroy, provided for Governor-Generals for each dominion. Ended British paramountcy over princely states. Partitioned Bengal and Punjab provinces.
Gandhi's Location (Aug 15, 1947): In Calcutta, trying to calm communal riots.
Direct Action Day (Aug 16, 1946): Called by Muslim League, led to 'Calcutta Killings', intensified demand for partition.
32. The Constitutional Development of India
(See notes under Topic 4 and other relevant Acts)
Constituent Assembly: Created under Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). Framed the Constitution. Maximum representation from United Provinces (as of Dec 31, 1947).
Sovereign Republic: India became a sovereign, democratic, republic with the adoption of the Constitution on January 26, 1950.
Communal Electorate: Introduced by Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) for Muslims. Lord Minto called 'Father of Communal Electorate'.
Responsible Government in Provinces: Provided by Government of India Act, 1935.
Inland Emigration Act (1859): Restricted movement of plantation workers.
33. Governors / Governors General / Viceroys
Robert Clive: First Governor of Bengal.
Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of Bengal (1773-1785). Established Madrasa in Calcutta (1781). Impeached.
Lord Cornwallis: Governor-General (1786-1793). Introduced Permanent Settlement (1793), Cornwallis Code. Known as 'Father of Civil Services in India'.
Lord Wellesley: Governor-General (1797-1805). Introduced Subsidiary Alliance system (1798). Built Government House (Raj Bhavan) in Calcutta (1798).
Lord William Bentinck: Last Governor-General of Bengal, First Governor-General of India (1828-1835). Abolished Sati (1829) (Regulation XVII). Suppressed Thuggee. Made English medium of education (1835). Established first medical college (Calcutta, 1835).
Charles Metcalfe: Known as 'Liberator of the Indian Press' (repealed press restrictions).
Lord Auckland: Governor-General (1836-1842). Signed Tripartite Treaty (1838). First Afghan War.
Lord Hardinge I: Governor-General (1844-1848). First Anglo-Sikh War.
Lord Dalhousie: Governor-General (1848-1856). Introduced Doctrine of Lapse. Annexed Satara (1848), Awadh (1856) etc. Introduced Railways (1853), Telegraph, Postal system (Postal Act 1854). Passed Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Known as 'Father of Indian Railways'.
Lord Canning: Last Governor-General, First Viceroy of India (1856-1862). Revolt of 1857 occurred. Passed Government of India Act 1858, Indian Councils Act 1861. Universities established (1857). Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
Lord Mayo: Viceroy (1869-1872). Held first (non-synchronous) census (1872). Started financial decentralization. Established Statistical Survey of India. Murdered in Andaman.
Lord Lytton: Viceroy (1876-1880). Passed Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act (1878). Held Delhi Durbar (1877). Second Afghan War.
Lord Ripon: Viceroy (1880-1884). Known as 'Father of Local Self-Government' in India. Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1882). Passed First Factory Act (1881). Appointed Hunter Commission (1882). Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883-84).
Lord Dufferin: Viceroy (1884-1888). Formation of INC (1885). Third Anglo-Burmese War.
Lord Curzon: Viceroy (1899-1905). Partition of Bengal (1905). Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904). Established Archaeological Survey of India dept.
Lord Minto II: Viceroy (1905-1910). Morley-Minto Reforms (1909). Surat Split (1907). Muslim League formed (1906).
Lord Hardinge II: Viceroy (1910-1916). Annulment of Bengal Partition (1911). Capital Shift (1911). Delhi Durbar (1911). Awarded Kaiser-i-Hind to Gandhi.
Lord Chelmsford: Viceroy (1916-1921). Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (GoI Act 1919). Rowlatt Act (1919). Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919). Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movements launched.
Lord Irwin: Viceroy (1926-1931). Simon Commission visit (1928). Lahore Session (Purna Swaraj, 1929). Dandi March & CDM launched (1930). First RTC (1930). Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Announced vague offer of 'Dominion Status' (1929).
Lord Mountbatten: Last Viceroy of British India, First Governor-General of Independent India (1947-1948). Oversaw Partition (Mountbatten Plan).
C. Rajagopalachari ('Rajaji'): Last Governor-General of India (1948-1950). First and only Indian Governor-General.
34. Statement/Slogan/Titles
'Iron Man of India': Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. For his role in integrating princely states.
'Deshbandhu' (Friend of the Country): Chittaranjan Das (C.R. Das).
'The light went away from our lives': Jawaharlal Nehru on Mahatma Gandhi's death.
'Martin Luther of India': Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
'Mahatma' (Great Soul): Title given to M.K. Gandhi by Rabindranath Tagore.
'Gurudev': Title given to Rabindranath Tagore by Mahatma Gandhi.
'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan': Slogan given by Lal Bahadur Shastri (during 1965 Indo-Pak war).
'Sardar': Title given to Vallabhbhai Patel by women of Bardoli (or by Gandhi on their behalf) during Bardoli Satyagraha (1928).
'Punjab Kesari' (Lion of Punjab): Lala Lajpat Rai.
'Bismarck of India': Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
'Father of Indian Civil Services': Lord Cornwallis (British India) / Sardar Patel (Independent India).
'Frontier Gandhi' / 'Badshah Khan' / 'Bacha Khan': Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
'Nightingale of India': Sarojini Naidu.
'Grand Oldman of India': Dadabhai Naoroji.
'Lokmanya' (Accepted by the people): Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
'Father of Indian Unrest': Bal Gangadhar Tilak (described by Valentine Chirol).
'Do or Die': Mahatma Gandhi (Quit India Movement, 1942).
'Delhi Chalo': Subhash Chandra Bose.
'Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom': Subhash Chandra Bose.
'Jai Hind': Subhash Chandra Bose (popularized).
'Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it': Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
'Inquilab Zindabad' (Long Live Revolution): Popularized by Bhagat Singh (coined by Hasrat Mohani).
'Sare Jahan Se Achcha': Song written by Muhammad Iqbal (1904).
'Satyameva Jayate' (Truth Alone Triumphs): From Mundaka Upanishad, popularized by Madan Mohan Malviya.
'Vande Mataram': National Song, composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (part of novel Anandamath).
'Temples of Modern India': Jawaharlal Nehru referred to Dams and large industrial/scientific projects.
'Deenbandhu' (Friend of the Poor): C.F. Andrews (given by Gandhi).
35. Important Monuments during British Period
Gateway of India (Mumbai): Built to commemorate the landing of King George V and Queen Mary (1911). Foundation stone 1911, inaugurated 1924. Architect: George Wittet. Style: Indo-Saracenic.
India Gate (New Delhi): All India War Memorial. Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens. Foundation stone 1921 (laid by Duke of Connaught), completed later. Commemorates soldiers who died in WWI and Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amar Jawan Jyoti (eternal flame) added in 1971 (later merged with National War Memorial flame).
Victoria Memorial (Kolkata): Large marble building built between 1906 and 1921. Commemorates Queen Victoria. Designed by Sir William Emerson. Style echoes Taj Mahal (Indo-Saracenic).
Parliament House (New Delhi): Constructed 1921-1927. Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. Inaugurated 1927 by Viceroy Lord Irwin.
Rashtrapati Bhavan (President House): Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
Fort William (Kolkata): Located on banks of Hooghly River. Original fort attacked by Siraj-ud-Daula (1756). New fort built after Plassey. Site cleared included village of Gobindapur.
Fort St. George (Chennai): First fort built by British EIC in India (1640). Also known as 'White Town'.
St. Angelo Fort (Kannur, Kerala): Built by first Portuguese Viceroy Francisco de Almeida (1505).
Charminar (Hyderabad): Built 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (Qutb Shahi Dynasty) to mark the end of a plague epidemic. Clocks added 1889.
Victoria Terminus (CST/CSMT, Mumbai): Built 1878-1888. Designed by F.W. Stevens. HQ of Central Railway.
Zero Mile Stone (Nagpur): Monument built by British (1907) during Great Trigonometrical Survey, marking geographical center of colonial India.
Safdarjung's Tomb (Delhi): Sandstone and marble mausoleum built 1754.
Other Monuments: Bara Imambara (Lucknow), Sarnath Stupa (Sarnath), Taj Mahal (Agra).
36. India After Independence
Goa Liberation: Freed from Portuguese rule on December 19, 1961, through military action 'Operation Vijay'. Portuguese ruled for ~450 years. Became state May 30, 1987.
Bangladesh Independence: Declared March 26, 1971. Became independent parliamentary democracy January 1972 after Liberation War (with Indian support) against Pakistan.
Indo-Pak Wars: Key conflicts occurred in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, 1999. (Note: 1962 war was with China).
Tashkent Agreement (1966): Signed between India (PM Lal Bahadur Shastri) and Pakistan (President Ayub Khan) after the 1965 war. Mediated by USSR.
Shimla Agreement (July 2, 1972): Signed between India (PM Indira Gandhi) and Pakistan (President Z.A. Bhutto) after the 1971 war. Converted ceasefire line into Line of Control (LoC).
Kargil War (1999): Conflict along LoC. Indian Army launched 'Operation Vijay' to clear intruders.
Assam Accord (August 15, 1985): Memorandum of Settlement signed between Government of India (PM Rajiv Gandhi) and leaders of All Assam Students' Union (AASU).
North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA): Name for present-day Arunachal Pradesh until January 20, 1972, when it became a Union Territory. Became state Feb 20, 1987.
Gandhian Plan (1944): Economic plan formulated by Shriman Narayan Agarwal.
Common Services at Independence: Telegraph, Railways, Postal services were present. Call centers were NOT.
Princely States: Around 565 officially recognized states at the time of independence. Integrated largely through efforts of Sardar Patel.
37. Modern History Miscellaneous
First Topographical Survey: Started by Major James Rennell (First Surveyor General of Bengal, 1767-1777).
English and Foreign Languages University (Hyderabad): Founded 1958.
Nobel Prize (Literature): Rabindranath Tagore (1913) for 'Gitanjali'. First Indian Nobel laureate.
Indian Toll Act: Passed 1851.
Delhi Land Reforms Act: Enacted 1954.
Shri Jagannath Temple Act: Passed 1955.
Bretton Woods Agreement (1944): Established IMF and World Bank.
Indian Independence League (1907): Founded by Taraknath Das in California, USA.
Soniji ki Nasiyan (Ajmer): Jain temple (Red Temple) dedicated to Rishabhdev (1st Tirthankara). Built 19th century.
St. Peter's Basilica: Located in Vatican City.
Durand Line: Border between Afghanistan and British India (now Pakistan). Agreement signed 1893 between Mortimer Durand and Abdur Rahman Khan.
Grand Trunk Road (NH-2): Rebuilt by Lord Dalhousie. Originally Sarak-e-Azam (Sher Shah Suri).
Sanchi Stupa Preservation: Role played by Begums of Bhopal (Shahjehan Begum, Sultan Jehan Begum). Sultan Jehan Begum was the successor.
Vivekananda Rock Memorial (Kanyakumari): Built 1970.
Kollam (Kerala): Ancient name 'Desinganadu'.
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