1. Invasion of Arabs and Turks (Mahmood of Ghazni, Muhammad of Ghori)
Chronological Order of Rulers:
Mahmud Ghazni (998–1030 AD)
Muhammad Ghori (1173–1206 AD)
Genghis Khan (1206-1227 AD)
Taimur (1370-1405 AD)
Al-Biruni:
Persian scholar, polymath (Physics, Math, Astronomy). Original Name: Abu Rayhan Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Al-Biruni.
Born 973 AD in Khwarezm (modern Uzbekistan).
Accompanied Mahmud Ghaznavi to Afghanistan and India (came to India 1017 AD).
Taken as war prisoner by Ghaznavi in 1027 AD.
Authored 'Kitab-ul-Hind' (also known as 'Tahqiq-i-Hind' or 'Tareekh-E-Hind') in Arabic.
'Kitab-ul-Hind': A comprehensive treatise on 11th-century India, covering sciences, religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, customs, social life, weights/measures, sculpture, law etc. (80 chapters).
Other scholars in Ghaznavi's court: Utbi, Firdausi.
Battles of Tarain (Between Muhammad Ghori & Prithviraj Chauhan):
First Battle (1191): Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori.
Second Battle (1192): Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.
Result: Ghori captured Prithviraj's kingdom (Delhi & Ajmer). Prithviraj was taken prisoner and executed.
2. Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD - 1526 AD)
General:
Period: 1206 AD to 1526 AD.
Sequence of Dynasties: Slave (1206-90) -> Khalji (1290-1320) -> Tughlaq (1320-1414) -> Sayyid (1414-51) -> Lodi (1451-1526).
First 4 dynasties were Turkic; Lodi dynasty was Afghan.
Rulers generally used the title 'Sultan' (except Mughals later). Mahmud of Ghazni was the first ruler to hold this title.
Iqtadari System:
Introduced by Iltutmish.
Land distribution and administrative system.
Empire divided into 'Iqtas', assigned to nobles/officers (Iqtadars) in lieu of salary.
Iqtas were transferable, making the system bureaucratic, not hereditary.
Different from Mughal Mansabdari system.
Jizya Tax: Poll tax on non-Muslim subjects. Initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Abolished by Akbar (1579). Re-imposed by Aurangzeb (1679).
i. Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty) (1206-1290 AD)
First Muslim dynasty to rule India; ruled for approx. 84 years.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Ruled 1206-1210 AD):
Founder of the Slave Dynasty.
Originally a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori.
Declared himself Sultan of Delhi in 1206 AD after Ghori's death.
Title: 'Lakhbaksh' (Giver of Lakhs) due to generosity.
Started construction of Qutub Minar in Delhi (c. 1198/1199).
Built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi - first mosque in Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer).
Died in 1210 AD while playing Chaugan (Polo).
Succeeded by Aram Shah, then Iltutmish.
Iltutmish (Ruled 1211-1236 AD):
Father of Razia Sultana.
Former slave of Aibak.
Completed the construction of Qutub Minar (added 3 storeys).
Introduced the Iqtadari system.
Razia Sultana (Ruled 1236-1240 AD):
Daughter of Iltutmish.
First and only Muslim female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
Nominated as heir by Iltutmish.
Close confidant: Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut (given titles Amir-al-Khayal, Amir al-Umara).
Imprisoned in Qila Mubarak, Bhatinda.
Ghiyasuddin Balban (Ruled 1266-1287 AD):
9th ruler of the Slave Dynasty.
Introduced Persian festival of 'Nauroz'.
Introduced court customs: Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the monarch's feet).
Served as Amir-i-Shikar under Razia Sultana.
Bakhtiyar Khalji: Military general of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Defeated Lakshman Sen of Bengal (c. 1203 AD).
ii. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khalji (Ruled 1290-1296 AD):
Founder of the Khalji Dynasty.
Overthrew the Slave dynasty.
Killed and succeeded by his nephew/son-in-law Alauddin Khalji.
Alauddin Khalji (Ruled 1296-1316 AD):
First Sultan to attack South India.
Successfully resisted Mongol invasions multiple times.
Established a 'Price Control System'.
Built Siri Fort (Delhi) for defense against Mongols (c. 1303).
Built Alai Darwaza (gateway to Qutub Minar complex).
Started construction of Alai Minar (intended to be double the height of Qutub Minar), but left unfinished.
Established Sera-i-Adl market in Delhi for goods at fixed prices.
Imposed high taxes: Kharaj (50% land revenue), Ghari (house tax), Charai (pasture tax).
iii. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (Ruled 1320-1325 AD): Founder of the dynasty. Ordered invasion that ended Kakatiya dynasty (1323).
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Jauna Khan/Ulugh Khan) (Ruled 1325-1351 AD):
Known for his ambitious projects and scholarship (logic, philosophy, math, astronomy, medicine).
Shifted capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) and back.
Introduced token currency (copper/brass coins) in 1330 AD.
Delhi Sultanate reached its largest territorial extent under him.
Ibn Battuta, Moroccan traveller, visited India during his reign and wrote 'Rihla'.
Built Begumpuri Mosque (main mosque of his new capital Jahanpanah, Delhi).
Associated with the Tomb of Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi).
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (Ruled 1351-1388 AD):
Cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Known for public works and adhering to Shariat for taxation (Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya, Haq-e-Sharb).
Founded cities: Jaunpur, Firozpur, Firozabad, Hissar, Fatehabad.
Repaired Qutub Minar and added the fifth storey.
Authored 'Futuhat-e-Firozshahi'.
iv. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)
Afghan dynasty; the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Bahlol Lodi (Ruled 1451-1489 AD): Founder of the dynasty.
Sikandar Lodi (Ruled 1489-1517 AD):
Son of Bahlol Lodi.
Founded the city of Agra in 1504 AD and moved the capital there.
Ibrahim Lodi (Ruled 1517-1526 AD):
Son of Sikandar Lodi.
Defeated and killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), ending the Delhi Sultanate.
3. Art and Architecture in Sultanate Period
Qutub Minar (Delhi): Started by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish, repaired/extended by Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Red sandstone, 73m high, UNESCO site.
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi): Built by Aibak. First mosque in Delhi.
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer): Built by Aibak. Originally a Sanskrit college.
Alai Darwaza (Delhi): Gateway built by Alauddin Khalji.
Siri Fort (Delhi): Built by Alauddin Khalji.
Tomb of Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi): Associated with Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Tomb of Sikandar Lodi (Delhi): Built by Ibrahim Lodi.
Begumpuri Mosque (Delhi): Built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Alai Minar (Delhi): Unfinished tower by Alauddin Khalji.
Indo-Islamic Style: Evolved during this period, visible in monuments like Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza.
4. Vijayanagar Empire (c. 1336-1646) & Bahmani Kingdom (c. 1347-1527)
Vijayanagara Empire:
Founded 1336 AD by Harihar I and Bukka I (Sangama dynasty).
Located in Deccan Plateau, South India. Capital: Hampi (Karnataka, UNESCO site).
Architecture: Primarily Dravidian style (e.g., Vitthal Temple at Hampi).
Dynasties: Sangama -> Saluva -> Tuluva -> Aravidu.
Rulers:
Harihar I (First King)
Bukka I (Expanded empire)
Deva Raya I (Nicolo Conti visited during his reign, c. 1420 AD)
Deva Raya II (Vitthal Temple built during his reign)
Vira Narasimha Raya (First Tuluva ruler, 1505-1509)
Krishnadeva Raya (Tuluva ruler, 1509-1529): Greatest ruler. Patronized 'Ashtadiggaj' (8 poets). Authored 'Amuktamalyada' (Telugu work on statecraft). Domingo Paes visited.
Battle of Talikota (1565): Led to the decline and destruction of the empire.
Bahmani Kingdom:
Founded 1347 AD by Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu).
Capital: Gulbarga.
Hasan Gangu was first Muslim ruler (in this context) not to levy Jizya.
Chand Bibi: Regent of Bijapur and Ahmednagar, fought against Akbar.
Golkonda Fort (Hyderabad): Associated with Qutub Shahi dynasty (later capital). Originally Kakatiya. Famous for diamonds.
5. Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Bhakti Saints/Concepts:
Annamacharya (Annamayya): 15th C. saint-musician (Andhra Pradesh). Composed 'Sankirtanas'.
Shankaracharya: Propounded Advaita (Non-dualism).
Ramanujacharya: Propounded Vishishtadvaita (Qualified non-dualism).
Madhavacharya: Propounded Dvaita (Dualism).
Nimbarka: Propounded Dvaitadvaita (Dualistic non-dualism). Founded Hamsa/Sanakadi Sampradaya (worships Radha-Krishna).
Vallabhacharya: Propounded Shuddhadvaita (Pure non-dualism).
Kabir Das: 15th C. poet (born Varanasi, died Maghar). Works compiled in 'Bijak'.
Mira Bai: 16th C. Rajput princess (Merta, Rajasthan), devotee of Krishna.
Tulsidas: Composed 'Ramcharitmanas' (Awadhi). Born Rajapur (UP).
Jayadeva: 12th C. Sanskrit poet. Composed 'Geet Govindam'. Court poet of Lakshmana Sena (Bengal).
Sufi Saints/Concepts:
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti: 13th C. saint (Chishti order). Dargah at Ajmer Sharif. His concept of Sulah-e-Kul influenced Akbar.
Hazrat Mian Mir: Sufi saint (Qadiri order, Lahore). Laid foundation stone of Golden Temple. Respected by Sikhs.
Sheikh Salim Chishti: Sufi saint (Chishti order). Tomb in Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar built the city in his honour.
Amir Khusrow: (See Literature)
6. Mughal Empire (1526-1857)
General:
Founded by Babur in 1526 after First Battle of Panipat.
Rulers did not use the title 'Sultan'.
Chronology: Babur -> Humayun -> Akbar -> Jahangir -> Shah Jahan -> Aurangzeb -> Later Mughals (incl. Bahadur Shah II).
Mansabdari System: Military/administrative ranking system introduced by Akbar.
i. Babur (Ruled 1526-1530)
Founder. Descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.
Real name: Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur.
Battles: First Battle of Panipat (1526), Khanwa (1527 - assumed 'Ghazi' title), Ghagra (1529).
Used Tulugama tactics and artillery effectively.
Wrote 'Baburnama' (Tuzuk-e-Baburi) in Chaghatai Turkish.
Died 1530 (Agra), buried in Kabul.
ii. Humayun (Ruled 1530-1540 & 1555-1556)
Son of Babur.
Defeated by Sher Shah Suri (Chausa 1539, Kannauj 1540) and exiled.
Regained throne in 1555.
'Humayunama' written by his sister Gulbadan Begum.
Tomb in Delhi (built by wife Hamida Banu Begum, first garden-tomb).
(Interregnum: Sur Dynasty (1540-1555))
Sher Shah Suri (Farid Khan) (Ruled 1540-1545):
Founded Sur dynasty.
Built Shahi Road (later GT Road), numerous sarais.
Tomb in Sasaram (Bihar).
Introduced silver 'Rupiya' coin.
iii. Akbar (Ruled 1556-1605)
Son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum. Born in Amarkot (1542).
Ascended throne at 13. Regent: Bairam Khan.
Key Battles: Second Battle of Panipat (1556 - defeated Hemu), Battle of Haldighati (1576 - against Maharana Pratap).
Religious Policy:
Din-i-Ilahi (1582) - syncretic faith.
Ibadat Khana (1575) at Fatehpur Sikri for discussions.
Abolished Jizya (1579).
Concept of Sulah-e-Kul (Universal Peace).
Administration: Todarmal (Finance Minister - Zabt/Dahshala revenue system), Mansabdari system.
Navratnas (Nine Gems): Incl. Abul Fazl, Faizi, Tansen, Birbal, Todarmal, Man Singh I, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
Architecture: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (capital 1571-85), Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal.
Died 1605, buried at Sikandra (Agra).
iv. Jahangir (Salim) (Ruled 1605-1627)
Son of Akbar.
Gave permission to EIC (Sir Thomas Roe) for factory at Surat.
Built Shalimar Garden (Kashmir).
Patronized painting.
v. Shah Jahan (Khurram) (Ruled 1628-1658)
Son of Jahangir. Golden age of Mughal architecture.
Built: Taj Mahal (Agra, for Mumtaz Mahal), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Shalimar Gardens (Lahore).
Built Peacock Throne.
Capital: Shahjahanabad (Delhi).
Imprisoned by son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort (Musamman Burj).
vi. Aurangzeb (Alamgir) (Ruled 1658-1707)
Son of Shah Jahan. Known as 'Alamgir' and 'Zinda Pir'.
Strict Sunni Muslim; re-imposed Jizya (1679).
Sent Jai Singh against Shivaji (Treaty of Purandar, 1665).
Built Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad) for wife Dilras Banu Begum (Rabia-ud-Daurani).
Built Moti Masjid (Delhi Fort).
Built Badshahi Masjid (Lahore).
Completed Mecca Masjid (Hyderabad).
Mughal empire reached largest extent but started declining. Died 1707.
vii. Rulers of Later Mughal Period (1707-1857)
Decline of Mughal Empire, rise of regional powers (Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad - Nizam-ul-Mulk).
Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): Defeated Mughals at Karnal, sacked Delhi, took Peacock Throne.
Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions: Defeated Marathas at Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Bahadur Shah II (Zafar): Last Mughal Emperor. Exiled to Rangoon by British after 1857 revolt. Died 1862.
7. Literature during Mughal Period
Persian: Official language.
Abul Fazl: Wrote 'Akbarnama' (including Ain-i-Akbari). Navratna of Akbar.
Babur: Wrote 'Baburnama' (Tuzuk-e-Baburi) in Chaghatai Turkish.
Gulbadan Begum: Wrote 'Humayunama'.
Futuhat-e-Firozshahi: Autobiography of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Wrote 'Padmavat' (1540) in Awadhi.
Tulsidas: Wrote 'Ramcharitmanas' in Awadhi.
Amir Khusrow (1253-1325): Poet, musician. Associated with court of several Delhi Sultans. Called 'Tuti-e-Hind'. Credited with inventing Tabla/Sitar.
Rihla: Travelogue by Ibn Battuta (Arabic).
Shahnama: By Firdausi (Persian Epic, pre-Mughal).
Translations: Many Sanskrit works translated into Persian.
8. Art & Architecture in Mughal & Later Mughal Period
Mughal Style: Blend of Persian, Turkish, and Indian styles. Known for symmetry, domes, arches, minarets, intricate decorations (Pietra Dura).
Key Monuments & Builders:
Humayun's Tomb (Delhi): Hamida Banu Begum (precursor to Taj Mahal).
Agra Fort: Akbar (red sandstone base), Shah Jahan (marble additions like Moti Masjid, Musamman Burj). UNESCO site.
Fatehpur Sikri: Akbar (Red sandstone city complex). Includes Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Tomb of Salim Chishti, Ibadat Khana. UNESCO site.
Buland Darwaza: Akbar (Highest gateway).
Taj Mahal (Agra): Shah Jahan (White marble mausoleum). Architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahori. UNESCO site.
Red Fort (Delhi): Shah Jahan (Red sandstone complex). UNESCO site.
Jama Masjid (Delhi): Shah Jahan (Largest mosque in India).
Shalimar Gardens (Lahore): Shah Jahan. (Kashmir): Jahangir.
Akbar's Tomb (Sikandra): Jahangir.
Itmad-ud-Daulah's Tomb (Agra): Nur Jahan (Jahangir's wife) for her father. Extensive use of Pietra Dura.
Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad): Aurangzeb/Prince Azam Shah ('Poor Man's Taj').
Badshahi Masjid (Lahore): Aurangzeb.
Later Period:
Jantar Mantar (Delhi, Jaipur, etc.): Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II (Astronomical observatories).
Hawa Mahal (Jaipur): Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh (Rajput architecture with Mughal influence).
Bara Imambara (Lucknow): Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula (Awadh architecture).
Mysore Palace: Wadiyar Dynasty (Indo-Saracenic style).
9. Sikhism
Gurus:
Guru Nanak Dev (1st Guru, Founder)
Guru Angad Dev (2nd Guru, Gurmukhi script)
Guru Arjan Dev (5th Guru, Compiled Adi Granth, Built Golden Temple)
Guru Gobind Singh (10th Guru, Founded Khalsa Panth)
Holy Scripture: Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahib.
Khalsa Panth: Founded 1699 by Guru Gobind Singh.
Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib): Amritsar. Most sacred shrine. Foundation stone by Mian Mir. Built by Guru Arjan Dev. Rebuilt by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Located beside Amrit Sarovar.
Panj Takht: Five holy seats of authority.
Banda Singh Bahadur: Military leader executed in 1716.
Nirankari Movement: 19th C. reform movement founded by Baba Dyal Das.
10. Medieval Miscellaneous
Sources: Chronicles (biographies, court poems), Travelogues (e.g., Rihla), Architectural remains.
Travellers: Al-Biruni (Uzbekistan), Ibn Battuta (Morocco), Nicolo Conti (Italy), Domingo Paes (Portugal), Ralph Fitch (England), William Hawkins (England), Sir Thomas Roe (England), Peter Mundy (England), Manucci (Italy), Marco Polo (Italy).
Regional Kingdoms/Forts:
Kakatiya Dynasty (Warangal): Ruled by Rudrama Devi. Ended by Delhi Sultanate. Built Golconda fort initially.
Sharqi Dynasty (Jaunpur): Built Atala Mosque.
Jaisalmer Fort (Rajasthan): Built by Rao Jaisal.
Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur): Tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah.
Murud-Janjira Fort (Maharashtra): Sea fort.
Qila Mubarak (Bhatinda): Ancient fort.
Manora Fort (Tamil Nadu): Built by Serfoji II.
Ahilya Fort (Maheshwar): Built by Ahilyabai Holkar.
Bekal Fort (Kerala).
Key Battles: Tarain I & II, Panipat I, II & III, Khanwa, Ghagra, Chausa, Kannauj, Haldighati, Talikota, Chillianwala, Karnal.
Terms: Sharia (Islamic Law), Hadith (Prophet's sayings), Zakat (Islamic charity), Jizya (Tax), Iqtadari (Land assignment), Mansabdari (Ranking system), Nauroz (Persian New Year), Sijda/Paibos (Court etiquette), Tulugama (Military tactic), Rupiya (Coin), Pietra Dura (Inlay work).
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