Lecture Summary: Moderates, Extremists, and Councils Acts (1861 & 1892)
I. Introduction & Context
Focus: Modern Indian History - Differences between Moderates and Extremists, and the Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892.
Relevance: Important for UPSC Prelims, Group 1, Group 2, Group 3, Group 4, and PC exams.
Approach: Understanding the how and why behind events and acts, not just rote memorization. Importance of political background for each Act. Reference to Laxmikanth but emphasizing deeper understanding.
II. Moderates vs. Extremists
Framework for Analysis (for both groups):
Aims/Goals (Lakshyamu): What did they want to achieve?
Methods (Paddhati): How did they try to achieve their goals?
Achievements (Vijayalu): What did they succeed in?
Review/Failures (Apajayalu/Samiksha): Critical assessment of their impact.
Moderates (Mithavaadulu)
Period (Implied): Roughly 1885 (INC Formation) to 1905.
Key Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, RC Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, Badruddin Tyabji.
Core Aim: Achieve political and administrative reforms within the British framework. Believed in British justice initially. Aim was not complete independence (Swarajya) at this stage, but gradual progress and participation in governance.
Specific Demands/Aims:
Legislative Reforms:
Increase Indian representation in Legislative Councils.
Expand powers of Legislative Councils (e.g., discuss budget, question the executive).
Administrative Reforms (ICS - Indian Civil Services):
Indianization of services.
Increase the maximum age limit for ICS exams.
Hold ICS exams simultaneously in India and London.
Judicial Reforms:
Allow Indian judges to try Europeans (Context of Ilbert Bill controversy).
Separation of Judiciary from Executive.
Economic Reforms:
Reduce military expenditure.
Stop the "Drain of Wealth" (highlighted by Naoroji, Dutt, etc.).
Reduce land revenue (Shistu) burden on peasants.
Reduce Salt Tax.
Agricultural Reforms: Encourage food crops, less pressure on commercial crops.
Methods:
Constitutional Agitation.
The "3 Ps": Petition, Prayer, Protest (Peaceful).
Belief in appealing to the British sense of justice.
Achievements (Partial/Foundation Laying):
Created political awareness and a national platform (INC).
Exposed the exploitative nature of British rule (Drain Theory).
Achieved some expansion of Legislative Councils and powers through the 1892 Act.
Foundation for future movements.
Criticisms/Failures (Review):
Limited reach – mostly confined to educated urban elites (lawyers, intellectuals). Failed to involve the masses (peasants, workers).
Methods seen as too mild ("Political Mendicancy").
Over-reliance on British goodwill.
Extremists (Athivaadulu)
Period (Rise): Around 1905 onwards (Partition of Bengal context).
Key Leaders: Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal), Aurobindo Ghosh. (Ajit Singh mentioned, but possibly more revolutionary).
Core Aim: Swarajya (Self-Rule/Complete Independence). Had no faith in British benevolence. Emphasis on self-reliance, national pride, and mass action.
Specific Demands/Aims: Swarajya, Swadeshi (promotion of indigenous goods/institutions), National Education.
Methods:
Boycott (of British goods, institutions, etc.).
Promotion of Swadeshi.
Passive Resistance (Concept associated with Aurobindo Ghosh).
Use of traditional festivals and symbols to mobilize masses.
Emphasis on self-sacrifice.
Achievements:
Broadened the base of the nationalist movement to include the masses.
Instilled national pride and self-confidence.
Popularized Swadeshi and Boycott as effective tools.
Made Swaraj the clear goal of the movement.
Criticisms/Failures (Review):
Sometimes used religious undertones which alienated some sections (e.g., Muslims).
Led to government repression and splits within the INC (e.g., Surat Split 1907).
III. Councils Acts
General Context:
Post-1857 Revolt, the British realized the need for some Indian association/representation in administration to avoid future uprisings and understand local sentiments.
Acts of 1861, 1892, and 1909 are often grouped as "Councils Acts".
Understanding the political background leading to each Act is crucial.
Indian Councils Act of 1861
Political Background: Direct consequence of the 1857 Revolt. British need to include Indians ("Time for Councils Entry").
Key Provisions:
Viceroy's Executive Council: 5th member added (Finance portfolio, James Wilson mentioned as first). Later a 6th (Public Works). Portfolio System introduced by Lord Canning (allocating specific departments to members).
Legislative Council (Central): Expanded by adding 6 to 12 "additional members" nominated by the Viceroy for 2 years. Crucially, some of these non-officials could be Indians. First nominated Indians: Raja of Benaras, Maharaja of Patiala, Sir Dinkar Rao. Powers were limited strictly to legislation; no control over budget or executive.
Ordinance Power: Viceroy given power to issue ordinances (lasting 6 months) without the Council's concurrence during emergencies.
Decentralization: Partially reversed the centralization of the 1833 Act. Restored legislative powers to the Presidencies of Bombay and Madras. (Beginning of legislative devolution).
Indian Councils Act of 1892
Political Background: Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885) and its persistent demands for reform (Moderate phase influence). Need to slightly appease growing nationalist sentiment. Aitchison Committee recommendations on Civil Services also played a role.
Key Provisions:
Legislative Councils (Central & Provincial): Further expanded the number of "additional members" (Central: 10-16). Increased the proportion of non-officials.
Increased Powers:
Members allowed to discuss the annual budget (Financial Statement) but could not vote on it or move amendments.
Members allowed to ask questions to the Executive on matters of public interest (required 6 days prior notice, supplementary questions not allowed).
Introduction of Election Principle (Indirect): For the first time, an element of indirect election was introduced for some non-official seats. Viceroy nominated members based on recommendations from bodies like Provincial Councils, Universities, District Boards, Municipalities, Zamindars, Chambers of Commerce. (Term 'election' was avoided, but the principle was there).
IV. Approach to Studying Constitutional Acts
Go beyond just listing provisions; understand the historical and political context that led to each Act.
Connect the Acts to the demands of nationalist groups (Moderates, Extremists).
Relate changes across different Acts (e.g., centralization vs. decentralization trends).
Understand the limitations and significance of each reform.
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